LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



r>T:TII» STATES OF AXTEICA. 



?^ 




George Washington. 



ELEMENTS 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY 



HIGHER INSTITUTES IN REPUBLICS 



AND FOR SELF-INSTRUCTION. 



BY 



Prof. H. M.COTTINGER, S.M,, 

Author of " Organization of Kindergaerten," " Zwingli's Vote against Cloisters and Convents,' 
"Rosa, the Educating Mother," "Method of Teaching in High Schools of Switzer- 
land," "Mediaeval Plays of Jacob RuefF, with Explanatory Notes," "Guide 
for Sunday Schools of Free German Congregations," etc., etc. 



Motto: — Historia, vitae magistra. 

(History teaches how to live.) — Cicero. 



f Idec r mCil 

BOSTON, MASS.: \f/;-t. '^''^ 6>S « ^C; • 



CHARLES H. WHITING, ^*^- ^WASH^^ 



32 Bromfield Street. 

MILWAUKEE, WIS.: SAN FRANCISCO: 

FREIDENKER PUBLISHING CO., CUNNINGHAM, WELCH & CO., 

470 East Water Street. Sansom Street. 

1884. 



J[\ 



esi- 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by 

Prof. H. M. COTTINGER, A. M., 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



TO 
THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, 

THE WARD OF THE PUBLIC LIBERTY, 

THE PROMOTOR OF 

SCIENCES, ARTS AND PUBLIC EDUCATION, 

And the 

PROTECTOR OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY, 

THIS WORK 

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY 

THE AUTHOR. 



WHAT is the use of your preface ? Who reads prefaces ?" You are right, 
dear reader, but I shall be brief, and therefore beg your indulgence. In 
writing this book I had two aims in view, \iz., to communicate to scholars those 
events which every well-educated man of our age ought to know, and to aid, with 
the concurrence of historical facts, in forming their moral character and sense 
of right. The States and events in which the ideas of right appear most perfectly 
realized are, therefore, chiefly considered. Both the ancient and modern repub- 
lics belong to those States. Their history was also taken into particular account 
for the reason that I wrote for pupils growing up in republics. The family 
wars and domestic feuds of princes, on the contrary, are only briefly touched 
upon. I hope that the narration more at large, of modern history and the events 
of the latest times, will be approved.' I also trust that the history of civilization, 
which is joined in every period to the political history, and which is generally 
omitted in similar historical works, will be welcome. 

The division of the contents into periods, it seemed to me, considering the 
vast extent of the historical material, was very necessary in order to get a clear 
insight of the latter. If general history is written ethnographically, it hardly 
deserves its name, because the connection in which the actions and adventures of 
the nations (particularly since the migration of nations) are put to each other, is 
completely severed. 

He who would think my work to be only a superficial compilation, will judge 
incorrectly; it is the result of my efforts during many years. The most accom- 
plished and most recent historical writings were carefully consulted, viz., those of 
Rotteck, Schlosser, Becker, G. Weber, Heeren, Kriegk, Boettiger, Wachsmuth, 
etc. True, these are German historiographers ; but I took also into account 
French, English and American authors, viz., RoUin (Histoire du monde ancien), 
R. Mackenzie (the 19th century), Alison, Fredet, H, Willson, Worcester, W. 
Swinton, Bancroft, Bryant, etc. Nevertheless, I am aware that my composition is 
still defective in many parts, but I appeal to the forbearance of the reader for in- 
dulgence in that respect. 

The exercises added at the end of every period will enable the scholar the 
better to work up the contents of the history, to grasp more rapidly the events, 
and to remember more easily the chronological dates. The exercises ought to 
be done by writing. 

Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the kind assistance of the ladies and gentle- 
men who reviewed and corrected the single sections of the book, namely, of 
Walter S. Thorne, M. D.; E. A. Clark, M. D.; Rev. N. F. Ravlin, Pastor of 
the Baptist Church ; Mrs. N. A. Simonds ; Mrs. F. W. Hill ; Miss Jessie B. 
Thompson, teacher Normal School ; C. O. W. Childs, Professor of History, Nor- 
mal School, and Mrs. Nellie Eyster, teacher and authoress ; to.all of them I offer 
my most sincere and cordial thanks. 

San Jose, Cal., December, 1883. 



p 



i^: 



m- 



ri3 



CONTENTS. 



FIRST SECTION— ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Page. 
§ I. Definition of Universal History. Its uses and division i 

FIRST PERIOD. 

From the Beginning of Historical Certainty to the Greco- 
Persian Wars. Despotism of Priestly and Military 
Government in the Orient. To 500 B. C. 



I 2 
I 3 
§ 4 
\ 5 
I 6 
I 7 
\ 8 
I 9 
§ 10 



FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

Most ancient States. India. China. Egypt. — Sesostris 2 

Assyria. Babylonia.— 7Semiramis. Media 4 

Palestine. Moses 5 

Persia. Cyrus 6 

Greece. Description of the country. Colonies 8 

Most ancient history of the land. Heroic age. Hercules 9 

Concluded. Expedition of the Argonauts 11 

Sparta. Lycurgus , , , 12 

Athens. Solon 14 

Italy. Rome. Romulus. Junius Brutus 15- 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

§ 12. Legislation. Constitutions of Lycurgus and Solon. Constitution of 

Rome under the kings l8 

§ 13. Religions. Zoroaster. Buddha. Cong-fu-Tse. Grecian and Roman 

religions 22 

§ 14. Arts and Sciences. Buildings of the Egyptians and Greeks. Homer. 26 

I 15. Commerce. Phoenicians. Invention of glass 29_ 

Exercises 30 

SECOND PERIOD. 

From the Greco-Persian Wars to Emperor Augustus. The 

Glorious Age "of Greece. Macedonia's Universal 

Monarchy. Roman Republic. 500-30 B. C. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

GREECE. 

1. ITS GLORIOUS AGE. 500-430 B. C. 

§16. Persian wars. Battle at Marathon. Miltiades 31 

I 17. Continued. Battle at Thermopylae. Leonidas 34 



X. 

Pas'- 

§ i8. Continued. Battle at Salamis. Themistocles 36 

I 19. Concluded. Battle at Platsese. Pausanias. Aristides. Cimon 38 

2. PROGRESSIVE DECAY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 430-146 B. C. 

\ 20. Peloponnesian war. Pericles. Alcibiades 41 

§ 21. Socrates 44 

I 22. Theban war. Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Battles at Leuctra and 

Mantinea 48 

^23. Greece subdued by Macedonia and Rome. Confederacy of Achaia... 52 

I 24. Syracuse. Timoleon '. 54 

I 25. Macedonia. Philip II. Alexander the Great, founder of an universal 

monarchy. Battles at Granicus, Issus and Arbela 56 

ROMAN REPUBLIC. 510-30 B. C. 

1. COMBATS AGAINST FOREIGN ENEMIES AND THE PATRICIANS. 510 TILL 

ABOUT 343 B. C. 

§26. War against the Tarquinians. Porsenna. Horatius Codes. Mu- 
cins Scsevoia 59 

\ 27. Domestic feuds between the patricians and plebeians. Appointment of 

tribunes 61 

\ 28. Coriolanus. Quinctius Cincinnatus. The XII tables and the de- 
cemvirs. Incursion of the Gauls 63 

2. CONTESTS FOR THE DOMINION IN ITALY. 343-267 B. C. 

\ 29. War against the Samnites and Latins. A Roman army passes under 

the yoke in the Caudine Mountains 65 

§30. Tarentine war. Fabricius 67 

3. CONTESTS FOR THE WORLD'S DOMINION. 264-133 B. C. 

§31. Carthage. First Punic war. Regulus 69 

I 32. Second Punic war. Hannibal. Battle at Cannse 71 

\ 33. Concluded. Scipio Africanus. Battle at Zama 74 

I 34. Subjugation of Macedonia, Syria and Greece. Death of Hannibal. 
Third Punic war. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Scipio, 

junior 76 

4. DOMESTIC STRUGGLES AND DOWNFALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 
133-30 B. C. 

\ 35. The two Gracchi. War with the Cimbri. War against the confed- 
erates. First civil war. Marius and Sulla. War against the 
slaves and pirates ; against Mithridates. Conspiracy of Catiline. 
Cicero 78 

\ 36. First triumvirate. Csesar, Pompey and Crassus. Second civil war. 

Battle at Pharsalia 80 

§ 37. Second triumvirate. Antonius, Octavius and Lepidus. Third civil 

war. Battle at Actium •. 83 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY .OF CIVILIZATION. 

§ 38. Constitution, morals, social and military condition of the Roman 

State 84 

§ 39. Arts and sciences. Julian calendar. Schools. Public games. Com- 
merce 85 

Exercises 89 



XI. 
THIRD PERIOD. 

From Emperor Augustus to the Great Migration of Nations. 

Roman Empire and its Decay. Victory of 

Christianity. 30 B. C. to 375 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

ROMAN EMPIRE. 30 B. C. TO 375 A. D. 

Page. 

\ 40. Augustus and the emperors from his descent 90 

§ 41. Rome ruled by good emperors. Decay of the empire 91 

I 42. Germany. Arminius (Herman) j. ..'.'.'.'.'.' 93 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

\ 43. Roman Constitution. Morals and customs of the ancient Germans. 95 

I 44. Religion of the ancient Germans. Christian religion 96 

I 45. Arts and sciences ..y.^. 98 

Exercises 90 



SECOND SECTION— HISTORY OF THE 
MIDDLE AGES. 

FOURTH PERIOD. 

From the Migration of the Nations to the Decay of the 

Dominion of the Franks, i. Migration of Nations. 

2, Mohammedan Empire. 3. Carlo- 

vingian Monarchy. 375-900 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

1. MIGRATION OF NATIONS. 375-568 A. D. 

§46. Summary of the migration. Huns. Attila loi 

\ 47. Visigoths. Alaric. Downfall of the Western Roman empire. Os- 
trogoths. Theodoric. Justinian. Belisarius 103 

2. MOHAMMEDAN UNIVERSAL EMPIRE. 632-900 A. D. 
\ 48. Arabia. Mohammed. The Caliphate 105 

3. CARLOVINGIAN MONARCHY. 771-900 A. D. 

\ 49. Franks. Clovis. Major-domos. Charlemagne. Partition of his 

realm joy 

I 50. England. Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great "!!'.".*.'.'.".".".'.*.'.'.'.'.".*.'.*. no 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

51. State of Constitutions. Roman laws. Propagation and degeneracy 

of Christianity. Monachism. Mohammedan religion m 

; 52. Arts and sciences. Arabian culture. Commerce '.., 113 

Exercises ."."."! iic 



XII. 

FIFTH PERIOD. 

From the Decay of the Empire of the Franks to the End of 

THE Crusades, i. The German Empire in its Prime. 

2. Universal Dominion of the Popes. 

3. Crusades. 900-1300 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

1. PRIME OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 900-1024 A. D. 

Page. 

§53. Germany. Saxon emperors. Henry I. Otto 1 115 

2. UNIVERSAL DOMINION OF THE POPES. 1024-1300 A. D. 

^54. Continued. Franconian emperors. Henry IV. and Gregory VII. 117 

I 55. Continued. Emperors of the family Hohenstauffen. Frederic Bar- 
barossa. Arnold of Brescia. First contest of the Lombard cit- 
ies for liberty II9 

^ 56. Concluded. Frederic II. Second contest of the Lombards for free- 
dom. Conradin. Sicilian vespers 121 

§ 57. France and England. Hugh Capet. William the Conqueror. Wars 

between England and Scotland. The Albigenses 123 

§ 58. Northern States of Europe. Normans. Russia. Mongols 126 

3. THE CRUSADES. 1096-1300 A. D. 

§ 59. First crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon. Taking of Jerusalem 128 

I 60. The other crusades. Emir Saladin. Latin empire 130 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

I 61. Constitutions. Feudal government. Feudal servitude. Magna 

Charta of England. Ordeals. Chivalry 134 

§ 62. The Church. Anathema. Interdict. Inquisitional Tribunal. Canon 

Law. Celibacy. Popes. Gregory VII. Innocent III 136 

^ 63. Arts and sciences. Troubadours and minnesingers. Commerce 140 

Exercises 142 

SIXTH PERIOD. 

From the End of the Crusades to the Discovery of America. 

Downfall of the Imperial Power, of the Papacy 

and the Church. 1300-1492 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

§ 64. Germany. Rudolph of Hapsburg. The House of Luxemburg. 

War of the Hussites. Maximilian 1 142 

I 65. Switzerland. Contests of the confederates for liberty. Battles at 

Sempach, Granson and Murten. Arnold Winkelried 145 

§ 66. France and England. Philip the Fair. Abolition of the Order of 

the Templars. French-English national war. Joan of Arc. War 

of the Two Roses 148 

^ 67. The Turks in Europe. Capture of Constantinople 151 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

§ 68. State of right. Laws. Secret court of criminal justice 152 

I 69. Church. Wycliffe. Huss. Popes. Schism of the Church. Synod 

of Constance 153 



Page. 
\ 70. Arts and sciences. Invention of the printing press. Gutenberg. 

Commerce. Hanseatic union 155 

Exercises ^57 



THIRD SECTION— MODERN HISTORY. 

SEVENTH PERIOD. 

From the Discovery of America to the Westphalian Peace. 

Voyages of Discovery. Reformation of the Christian 

Church. Wars of Religion. 1492-1648 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

1. VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 1420-1530 A. D. 

\ 71. Vasco de Gama. Columbus I59 

§ 72. Ferdinand Cortez. Pizzaro. Magellan. First settlements in the 

territory of the United States. The Pilgrim Fathers 163 

2. REFORMATION OF THE CHURCH AND RELIGIOUS WARS. 
1517-1648 A. D. 

\ 73. Germany. Causes of the Reformation. Martin Luther. Diet in 

Worms 166 

\ 74. Continued. Insurrection of the peasants. Confession of Augsburg. 

Smalcaldian war. Religious peace of Augsburg 1 70 

\ 75. Continued. Thirty years' war. Insurrection of the Bohemians. 

Ferdinand II. Restitution edict 172 

§76. Continued. Gustavus Adolphus. Battles at Leipsic and Liitzen 173 

\ 77. Concluded. Battle "at Nordlingen. Bernard of Weimar. Tors- 

tensohn. Westphalian peace 176 

\ 78. Switzerland. Zwingli. Calvin. Unitarians 177 

I 79. Spain. Philip II. Secession of the Netherlands. William of 

Orange • 179 

\ 80. France. War against the Huguenots. St. Bartholomew. Henry 

IV. Edict of Nantes i8i 

I 81. England and Scotland. Henry VIII. Elizabeth. Mary Stuart. 

Charles 1 184 

I 82. Northern States. Sweden. Gustavus Vasa. Prussia 189 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

\ 83. Protestants. The Catholic Church. Synod of Trent. Order of 

the Jesuits 19° 

\ 84. Sciences and arts. Raphael. Shakespeare. Cervantes. Nicholas 

Copernicus. Galileo. Correction of the calendar 193 

Exercises ^95 

EIGHTH PERIOD. 

From the Westphalian Peace to the French Revolution. 

Unlimited Monarchy and European Equilibrium. 

1647-1789 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

§85. Austria. Sobieski. Maria Theresa. War of Succession. Joseph II... 196 
\ 86. Prussia. Frederic II. Seven years' war. Battles at Rossbach and 

Lissa 198 



XIV. 

Page. 

g 87. France. Louis XIV.'s predominance in Europe. His wars. Span- 
ish succession war. Battle at Blenheim. Persecution of Protest- 
ants. Louis XV 200 

§ 88. England. Cromwell. War against Holland. Admirals Blake, Van 
Tromp and Ruyter. Charles II. Whigs and Tories. Dethrone- 
ment of James II. William HI. Accession of the House of 
Hanover. The Pretenders 203 

§ 89. Northern States. Peter the Great. Charles XII. Battles at Narva 

and Pultowa. First dismemberment of Poland 206 

^90. East Indies. Aureng Zeb. East Indian Company 209 

3 91. United States of North America. Their colonies. The French 

wars 210 

§ 92. Continued. War of the colonies for independence. The Stamp Act. 
Battle at Bunker Hill. Declaration of Independence. George 
Washington. Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Paine 215 

§ 93. Concluded. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Lafayette. Sur- 
render of Burgoyne and Cornwallis. French alliance. Treaty of 
Paris. Constitution. Washington, first president 219 

SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 

^ 94. Political condition. Constitution of the United States 224 

I 95. Condition of the Church. Voltaire. J. J. Rousseau. Abolition of 

the Order of Jesuits 225 

3 96. Arts and sciences. Inventions. Cook's voyages of discovery 227 

Exercises 230 

NINTH PERIOD. 

From the French Revolution to the Second Peace of Paris. 

Revolution and Political Reforms in France. Wars 

Caused by it. 1789-1815 A. D. 

A. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
1. POLITICAL REFORMS IN FRANCE. 1789-1792 A. D. 

§ 97. Causes and effects of the French revolution 231 

§ 98. National Assembly. The third estate. Mirabeau 232 

§ 99. Taking the Bastile. Abolition of feudal servitude 234 

I 100. Louis conducted to Paris 236 

2, REVOLUTIONARY WARS. 

§101. Flight of the king. The constitution finished 238 

I 102. Legislative assembly. War of Austria and Prussia. Suspension 

of the king. The Jacobins 239 

§ 103. National Convent. Execution of Louis XVI. First coalition war. 

Civil war. Reign of Terror 242 

§ 104. Downfall of the Reign of Terror. Directorial government. The 

coalition war continued. Napoleon Bonaparte 245 

§ 105. Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Second coalition war. Battle at 

the Pyramids. Naval combat at Abukir. Consular government. 247 

§ 106. French empire. Third coalition war. Prusso-Russian war. Bat- 
tles at Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstadt, Eilau and Friedland. The 
Continental system ,. 249 

g 107. Spanish, Austrian and Russian wars. Burning of Moscow 251 

I 108. Fourth coalition war. Battle at Leipsic. Restoration of the Bour- 
bons. Congress of Vienna. German Confederation. Battle at 
Waterloo. Napoleon banished to Elba, and captive in St. Hel- 
ena. The Holy Alliance 254 



XV. 

Page. 
B. PARTICULAR HISTORY OF SOME STATES. 

§ 109. Switzerland. Austria. England „ 257 

I no. Poland. Second and third partition. Kosciusko 258 

I III. United States of North America. War against England. Battle at 

New Orleans. Republic of Hayti. Toussaint Louverture 260 

Exercises.. 263 

TENTH PERIOD. 

From the Second Parisian Treaty to the Present Time. Res- ■ 
TORATioN. Limitation of the Monarchies. Last 
Revolutions. 1815-1883 A. D. 

FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 

1. TIME OF RESTORATION. 1815-1830 A. D. 

§112. France. Germany 264 

I 113. Spain and Portugal 266 

I 114. Italy. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont 268 

I 115. Greece. Contest against the Poi-te. Ypsilanti. Bozzaris. Fall of 

Missolonghi. Naval battle at Navarino. Mehemed Ali 269 

\ 116. America. United States. Missouri Compromise. Monroe doc- 
trine. Protective tarifit. Contests of the Spanish colonies for 
independence. Bolivar. Brazil 273 

2. THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 
1880-1848 A. D. 

§ II 7. France. Revolution of July. Dethronement of Charles X. The 

family of Orleans 276 

\ 118. Belgium. Separation from Holland. Germany 279 

I 119. Switzerland. Political reforms. Secession war. Amendment of 

the constitution 281 

\ 120. Poland and Russia. Revolution in Poland. Battle of Ostrolenka. 

Caucasian war. Shamyl 283 

§ 121. Great Britain. Emancipation of the Catholics. Reform of the par- 
liament. Emancipation of the slaves. The Corn laws relaxed. 
O'Connell. Lord Russell. Dominion in the East Indies. War 
against China 285 

\ 122. United States of North America. Indian wars. War with Mexico. 
Generals Taylor and Scott. Battles at Buena Vista and Chapul- 
tepec. Capture of Vera Cruz and of the City of Mexico 287 

3. THE REVOLUTIONS IN 1848. 

\ 123. France. Dethronement of Louis Philippe. Establishment of a re- 
public and of an empire. Louis Napoleon HI, Franco-German 
war. Battle at Sedan. Restoration of the republic 290 

\ 124. Germany. Insurrection in Berlin and in the Grand dukedom of 
Baden. German National Assembly. Schleswig and Holstein. 
Prusso-Austrian war. Battle at Sadowa 294 

\ 125. Austria. Insurrection in Vienna. Reforms of the government. 

War in Hungary. Kossuth. Goi'gey surrenders at Villages 298 

\ 126. Italy. Revolutions of the Italian States. War of Austria against 
Sardinia and France. Battles at Magenta and Solferino. United 
kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi 301 

§127. Russia. Crimean war. Siege of Sebastopol. Russo-Turkish war. 

Surrender of the Turks at Shipka Pass 304 

\ 128. America. Secession war in the United States. Abraham Lincoln.. 306 



XVI. 

Page. 

129. Continued. Emancipation of the slaves. Battle at Gettysburg. 

Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson 312 

130. Concluded. Sherman's march to the Sea. Surrender of Richmond 

and of the confederate army. Lincoln assassinated. Amendment 

of the Constitution. Free Homestead Bill 315 

131. Japan 320 

SECOND CHAPTER. 
HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION DURING THE NINTH AND TENTH PERIODS. 

132. Constitutions. Political and social tendencies. Position of woman. 

Military condition. Church 321. 

133. Arts and sciences. Public schools 324 

•134. Inventions. Steamboats. Railroads. Telegraphs. Cable. Tele- 
phones. Photography. Cotton-gin. Exhibitions of arts and 
industry 328 

Exercises 330 




FIRST SECTION. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



I 1. Definition of Universal History. Its Uses and 

Division. 

Universal History is the representation of generally remark- 
able facts, both of entire nations and of individuals. Its uses are 
manifold. It teaches us to know our nature, to respect it, as well 
as ourselves. It offers us the treasures of the experience of all cen- 
turies. It teaches us to form a just opinion of the most impor- 
tant events of public and private life. It explains the present by 
the past, and sharpens the sight of the future. It disposes the 
mind to toleration in religious matters, to genuine piety, to patriot- 
ism, and to benevolence towards the whole of mankind. It leads us 
to abhor folhes, vices and crimes, encourages to virtue, and in- 
spires a love for right and liberty. How often has not the example 
of a Leonidas, of an Arminius, of a Washington, incited to imita- 
tion ? It teaches us, besides, to believe in the ruling of eternal laws 
of the universe, and in a sure retribution. Finally, it shows how 
man is himself, for the most part, the creator of his own happiness 
and misery. 

Universal History is commonly divided into three parts, viz : 
ancient, mediaeval and modern time. Ancient history extends from 
the beginning of historical certanity to the great migration of 
nations, A. D. 375 ; mediaeval history to the discovery of America 
in 1492 ; and from that date also begins the history of modern times. 

Universal History may be also divided into several periods or 
epochs, which, in this book, are marked as follows : 

I, From the beginning of historical certainty to the Greco- 
Persian wars, /. e. to 500 B. C. 

II. From the Greco-Persian wars to the Emperor Augustus, 
500 B. C. to 30 B. C. 

\ I. What is Universal History ? Describe its vises. What are its principal 
divisions ? Give their limits of time. 



2 

III. From Augustus to the great migration of nations, 30 B. C. 
to 375 A. D. 

IV. From the migration of nations to the decay of the realm 
of the Franks, 375-900 A. D. 

V. From the decay of the realm of the Franks to the end of the 
Crusades, 900-1300 A. D. 

VI. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America, 
1300-1492 A. D. 

VII. From the discovery of America to the Westphalian peace, 
1492-1648 A. D. 

VIII. From the Westphalian peace to the French revolution, 
1648-1789 A. D. 

IX. From the French revolution to the second peace of Paris, 
1789-1815 A. D. 

X. From the second peace of Paris to the present time, 18 15- 
1883 A. D. 



FIRST PERIOD. 

From the Beginning of Historical Certainty to tine Greco- 
Persian Wars, Despotism of Priestly and Military 
Government in the Orient, To 500 B, C. 



riEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOKT. 



§2. The Most Ancient States — India, China, Egypt; 
Sesostris. 

Ancient History properly begins at that period where events 
commence to be certain ; but their certainty does not reach beyond 
600 years before Christ. The most ancient States were probably in 
India and China. The relics of old monuments, which still exist 
there, plead for the high antiquity of the Indian States. From 
India the ancient nations brought their cultivation, and the Egyp- 

I 2. How many periods are set down in this book? Marie tlie limits of 
time of each period. What is the earliest date of historical certainty ? What 
States are probably the most ancient ? What reasons speak for their antiquity ? 



tians and Greeks, in all probability, their religious ceremonies, too. 
The States in Nubia (Ethiopia) and Egypt may next be mentioned. 
The first inhabitants of Nubia were partly troglodytes, or cave- 
dwellers. Later, the theocratical State of Meroe originated there, 
and the temples, pyramids and other splendid remains of archi- 
tecture of it may still be found. 

First herdsmen passed through Egypt; then it was probably 
settled from the State of Meroe by colonies of priests, who sub- 
dued these herdsmen and introduced agriculture. Such a colony 
was Thebais, with the city of Thebes, in Upper Egypt. The first 
known king (Pharaoh) was Menes, probably the founder of Mem- 
phis, about 2000 years B. C. A large part of Egypt was conquered 
by the pastoral kings (Hyksos), who arrived from Arabia. At last 
the Egyptians took courage and expelled the foreigners (probably 
about 1700 B. C.) Not long after the whole country was united 
into one State, of which Thebes became the capital ; and thencefor- 
ward the Egyptian realm flourished for 1000 years. 

Thebes became the principal seat of human civilization. 
Moeris is said to have constructed the lake bearing the same name. 
Sesostris, his successor (about 1500 B. C), built magnificent temples, 
many canals and public roads, and was a good law-giver. He is 
also reported to have divided the country into twelve temple districts, 
and to have designated three capitals, namely : Thebes for Upper 
Egypt, Memphis for Middle Egypt, and Heliopolis for Lower 
Egypt. His vessels navigated as far as India. Besides, he was 
a powerful conqueror, and raised Egypt to her highest lustre. The 
Nubians conquered the country in the eighth century, but re- 
mained in possession of it only a short time. About 670 B. C. it 
was divided among twelve sovereigns, who are said to have con- 
structed the Labyrinth on Lake Mceris. One of them, Psammeti- 
chus, sovereign of Sais, aided by mercenaries, vanquished the others 
and conquered the whole land. From the period of his reign the 
obscurity of Egyptian history becomes more clear. He opened the 
harbors of the country to foreigners, and the nation now entered 
into commercial relations with the Greeks. His son Neko (Necho) 
is said to have had Africa circumnavigated by Phoenicians. Camby- 
ses, king of Persia, conquered Egypt (530 B. C.), and from that 

What of the State of Meroe ? Who is the first known king of Egypt ? Who 
conquered a large part of Egypt ? What city became the capital of the united 
States of Egypt ? What of Moeris ? Of Sesostris ? Who constructed the Laby- 
rinth ? Who conquered the whole of Egypt ? 



time it remained almost continuously tributary to Persia, until Alex- 
ander the Great overturned the throne of Cyrus (333 B. C), and 
also conquered this country. After Alexander's death it fell under 
the dominion of the Ptolemies. 

§ 3. Assyria. Babylonia. — Semiramis. Media. 

The Assyrian empire, which comprised Babylonia, Media and 
Bactria, was (about 2000 B. C.) founded by Ninus, the builder of 
Nineveh, a city which was said to extend a three days' journey on 
the Tigris, because it also embraced fields and pasture grounds. 
His wife was Semiramis, who is reported to have excited admiration 
by her heroic exploits. Ninus left her the crown. She built or 
embellished Babylon, and undertook expeditions of conquest with 
immense hosts, but succumbed in a war against India, the riches of 
which nation had allured her greediness. Her son Ninias was only 
a mock king. From his time down to the reveller Sardanapalus, 
history presents nothing memorable of the sovereigns of Assyria. 
Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, revolted against the latter about 
600 B. C, and aided by Cyaxares, the king of Media, deprived him 
of the government. Sardanapalus burned himself with his wives 
and treasures ; the victors destroyed Nineveh, and shared the empire 
among themselves. After the destruction of Nineveh the Babylo- 
nians or Chaldseans were the most important people in these coun- 
tries. They were nomadic mountaineers, who had come down from 
the north to the plains of Babylonia, entered into the service of the 
Assyrian kings, and received Babylonia for their habitation. Nabo- 
polassar himself belonged to this tribe. His son, Nebuchadnezzar, 
conquered Egypt and Judea, demolished Jerusalem, and removed 
the wealthy portion of its inhabitants to Babylonia, He is reported 
to have also conquered the great commercial cities Sidon and 
Tyre — the latter not until after thirteen years of valiant resistance. 
Then Tyre (as they say) was founded anew on a neighboring island. 
Cyrus destroyed the Chaldaean-Babylonian realm in 539 B. C. 

The Medians, Bactrians and Persians occupied the country be- 
tween the Tigris and Indus as far as the Indian Ocean, and at first 
formed but one nation. From their language, the Zend, they are also 
called the Zend nation. When the Medians had thrown off the As- 

What foreign sovereigns conquered Egypt in later times ? | 3. Wiio founded 
tlie Assyrian empire ? Wiio was the wife of Ninus ? What of her ? What 
of Ninus ? Who deprived Sardanapalus of the government ? What kind of a 
people were the Chaldreans ? What of Nebuchadnezzar? 



Syrian yoke, they lived for a time in anarchy, and experienced all its 
terrors ; then they elected Deioces umpire, who, by good laws, put 
an end to the confusion. They built Ecbatana as a residence for 
him, which then remained the capital of the land. King Cyaxares 
was his grandson. Cyrus dethroned Astyages, son of Cyaxares, and 
changed Media into a province of the Persian empire. 

§ 4. Palestine. Moses. 

Abraham (Abram), a pastoral sovereign in Mesopotamia (be- 
tween the Euphrates and Tigris) emigrated to Palestine about 2000 
B. C. His descendants are designated after him, whom the natives 
of the country named Eber (that is, the comer from yonder), as 
Hebrews ; after his grandson Jacob, who bore the surname Israel, as 
Israelites, and after Judah, son of Jacob, as Jews. 

The Jews, in later times, migrated to Egypt, where the Hyksos 
severely oppressed them. Moses there became their liberator. 
According to common report, he had received an excellent educa- 
tion at the royal court. He was especially initiated into the religious 
mysteries of the priests. Once, seeing an Egyptian treat a com- 
patriot cruelly, he grew enraged, killed the aggressor, and fled, hid- 
ing in the Arabian desert. Here the great idea ripened in his mind 
to liberate his compatriots. He returned, prepared them for his 
bold plan, and led them, in spite of the resistance of Egypt's sov- 
ereign, into the northern free, though barren, part of Arabia (about 
1500 B. C.) He conquered the country situated east of the Jordan ; 
hi& successor, Joshua, subdued Palestine proper. The Jews were 
subjected to the sway of the priests ; but the insolence and crimes 
of the sons of the high priests, Heli and Samuel, rendered their 
rule so hateful to them that they finally demanded a king. Samuel 
gave them one in the person of Saul (1095 B. C), but as the latter 
would not be a mere tool of the priests, Samuel, soon after, chose 
David in order to oppose Saul ; then civil war broke out. In the 
contest with the Philistines, the most formidable enemies of the Jews, 
Saul lost the decisive battle, and, seeing his sons fall, inflicted death 
upon himself. David, at last, was universally acknowledged king, 
but the rebellion of his sons disturbed . his quiet occupation of the 
throne. He liked war, and is said to have enlarged his dominion 

What is said of Deioces? Who made an end to the Median reign? 
I 4. What is said of Abraham ? What are his descendants called ? Who 
oppressed the Jews in Egypt ? Who became their liberator ? Relate his biog- 
raphy. What kinds of government had the Jews ? What of Saul and David ? 



6 

as far as Egypt and to the Euphrates. His son Solomon (1014 
B. C.) did not at all fulfill the expectations the nation entertained 
of his wisdom. He oppressed it by taxes and socage, cruelly per- 
secuted his adversaries, introduced oriental pomp at his court, and 
disgraced himself by voluptuousness and idolatry. The people be- 
came dissatisfied, the priests nourished the ill feelings of the public 
mind, and roused against him an antagonistic king in the person of 
Jeroboam; Solomon, nevertheless, maintained the throne. But 
when his son and successor, Rehabeam, afflicted the people still 
more cruelly, they revolted again (975 B. C), and ten tribes chose 
Jeroboam their king. Only two tribes remained faithful ; they con- 
stituted the Judaic, the other ten the Israelitic kingdom. At first 
the capital of the latter was Sichem, afterwards Samaria. Both 
kingdoms weakened themselves more and more by discord, reUgious 
quarrels and viciousness. The prophets (teachers of the people, 
who influenced the nation and the kings by their songs and 
speeches) in vain predicted the ruin of the people; in vain they 
exhorted to reform, concord, piety ; their voice was not listened to. 
At last both States became the prey of foreign conquerors ; the 
Israehtes were removed by Salmonassar to Media (722 B. C), and 
the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (600 B. C.) New in- 
habitants emigrated from the provinces of the conquerors to Pales- 
tine. They intermixed with those who had remained, and received 
the name of Samaritans. Cyrus permitted the Jews to return to 
their country (about 535 B. C), where they rebuilt the temple and 
the capital, but remained subject to the Persians. 

§ S. Persia. Cyrus. 

Cyrus (Kyros), a Persian nobleman and grandson of King 
Astyages, at the head of his discontented fellow-citizens, dethroned 
his grandfather, who (as some report) had intended to kill Cyrus 
immediately after his birth. He conquered Media, Armenia and 
Cappadocia, thereby becoming the neighbor of the powerful Croe- 
sus, king of Lydia. The latter, whose riches became proverbial, 
made war on Cyrus, being brother-in-law of Astyages, but his capi- 
tal; Sardes, was captured after a short siege, and he himself taken 
prisoner (548 B. C.) It was decreed that he be put to death. He 

How did Solomon govern the Jews ? Who was his successor ? Into what 
kingdoms was Palestine separated under Rehabeam ? Who conquered them ? 
What does the name "Samaritans" mean? §5. From whom did Cyrus 
descend ? What countries did he conquer ? 



was fettered, and sat on the burning funeral pile, when he called three 
times the name of Solon, Asked for the reason of his calling, he 
answered that the wise Solon had once directed his attention to the 
mutability of his fortune, and that he now experienced how truth- 
fully the former had spoken. Cyrus, greatly afifected, granted the 
unhappy man life, and even his friendship. After this the latter 
continued his course of conquests. One of his generals subdued 
the Asiatic Greeks; Cyrus himself marched against Babylon and 
vanquished that city (538 B. C), notwithstanding its high walls and 
deep ditches, entering by stratagem (it is reported) through a branch 
of the Euphrates which he had turned off, into the city, where the 
people, after a riotous festival, were in a drunken stupor. He ob- 
tained with the capital also possession of the Babylonian realm and 
its dependencies, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine, after which he 
attempted to subjugate the' Massagetse beyond the Caspian Sea, but 
he and his whole army were annihilated. Tomyris, their queen, put 
Cyrus' head in a leather bag filled with blood, crying : " Drink now 
your fill of blood, because you were always thirsty for it." Others 
report not only the death, but the whole biography of Cyrus in a 
different way. 

His son and successor, Cambyses, conquered Egypt, He wanted 
also to subjugate the Nubians ; but the desert through which he had 
to march soon compelled him to return. Another army which he 
sent against the Ammonians in the Lybian desert, met its destruc- 
tion there. It is said that the despot killed his own sister, and that 
he also, prompted by mere suspicion, caused his brother Smerdes to 
be killed. At last a conspiracy was planned, headed by the Magi, 
who averred that the brother of a Magus, pretending to be Smerdis, 
ought to be the sovereign. Cambyses marched against him, but 
wounded himself so dangerously with his sword, which, as he 
mounted his horse, happened to pass into his hips, that he died. 
The Persians paid homage to the false Smerdis ; but seven noblemen 
soon conspired against him, killed him, and, by lot, elected Darius, 
son of the Governor Hystaspes, to succeed him. The latter also 
subjugated several countries, e. g. Thracia and Macedonia. The 
Greeks in Asia Minor, who bore the Persian yoke with indignation, 
attempted to liberate themselves. They rose against Darius, Aris- 
tagoras, governor of Milet, being at the head of the revolt, expelled 

What is said of Cyrus ? How was Babylon captured by Cyrus ? By whom 
was he killed ? What is said of Tomyris ? What of Cambyses ? How did he 
lose his life ? Who succeeded the false Smerdis ? Narrate the revolt of the 
Asiatic Greeks against Darius. 



their tyrants, and gave all cities republican forms of government. 
But it seemed to them to be necessary, in their dangerous under- 
taking, to ally themselves also with the European Greeks. Arista- 
goras first applied to the Spartans for assistance, but it was refused. 
The Athenians, on the contrary, already provoked by Darius be- 
cause he commanded them to reinstate the expelled Hippias (see 
§ lo), granted them assistance. As soon as their fleet in Asia 
arrived all the lonians rose, and attacked Darius in his own territory 
(503 B. C.) They succeeded, indeed, in burning Sardes, the resi- 
dence of the Persian governor (Satrap); but they were vanquished 
at Ephesus. Upon this the Athenians, returning home, left them 
alone. The lonians continued to struggle, but were once more 
beaten (498 B. C), and had again to submit. The opulent city of 
Milet was destroyed, and Histiseus, father-in-law of Aristagoras, 
who had first encouraged the lonians to rebel, fastened to the cross. 
Then Darius endeavored to subdue also the European Greeks, but 
this undertaking was an entire failure (see §16). The Persian power 
had, under his rule, attained its summit ; the wars waged against the 
Greeks by himself and by his successor, Xerxes, shook it already 
to its foundation. The bloody quarrels between his successors 
for the throne, the wars of Satraps and a slack government weak- 
ened the empire still more ; the conquered lands fell off; and Gre- 
cian mercenaries were the last prop of the tottering throne. Finally, 
the destruction of the rotten monarchy by Alexander the Great 
followed under Darius Codomannus, last scion of. the royal family 
(330 B. C.) 

GREECE.* 



g 6. Description of the Country. Colonies. 

South of the Balkans, a peninsula of the Mediterranean is situ- 
ated, the northern half of which contains Thracia, Macedonia and 
a part of Illyria, but the southern one Greece proper. The latter 
was divided into Northern Greece, Hellas and Peloponnesus. In 
Northern Greece, at the west, was Epirus ; at the east Thessalia, 
with Mount Olympus. From Thessalia the rocky pass Thermopylse 

What was tlie fate of Histiseus ? What were the causes of the downfall of 

the Persian monarchy ? ^6. Define the situation of the Grecian States ? 

Of Macedonia? Hellas? Peloponnesus? Thessalia? 

*This country occupies but a speck on the map of the earth, but its history is more important 
than that of the mightiest empires that have overshadowed the earth. Its inhabitants excelled all 
ancient nations for genius, learning, attainments in sciences and arts, republican institutions and 
heroic exploits, and they have been the teachers of all succeeding ages. Hence their history is 
related more in detail. 



9 

led to Hellas, into the territories of Locris, Doris and Phokis. 
In Phokis, at Delphi, on Mount Parnassus, stood the celebrated 
temple of Apollo. West of these small States ^tolia and Acarnania 
were situated — the latter with the promontory Actium ; east, Boeotia 
with the city of Thebes. Boeotia was bordered on the south by 
Attica and the capital Athens, and by the small land of Megaris, 
from which the Strait of Corinth led to the Peloponnesus. In the 
northeast were Argolis and the cities of Argos and Mikense, and in 
the north, Achaia and the magnificent cities of Corinth and Sicyon. 
The western coast was occupied by Elis, with the town of Olympia. 
Southwest was Messenia, and southeast Laconia, with the capital, 
Sparta. In the central part of Peloponnesus, Arcadia, the Grecian 
Switzerland, and for a long time the seat of high simplicity of 
morals, was situated. 

The largest of the Grecian islands were Eubsa, Crete, Rhodes 
and Cyprus. All flourished, and became powerful by their com- 
merce. Among the smaller ones Salamis and Delos grew famous — 
the former by the great Persian sea-fight, and the latter by the temple 
of Apollo. 

The Greeks had many colonies, and although the latter were 
entirely independent from the mother States, still they lived in 
friendly relations with them. The most renowned in Asia were 
Smyrna, Mytilyne, on the island of Lesbos, Miletus, Ephesus and 
Phocoea. When Cyrus overrun Asia Minor, the inhabitants of the 
last named city left their native country in quest of freedom and 
founded Marseilles, in France, where they imported the grapevine 
and the olive tree. In Europe, the coasts of the Azov, Black and 
^gean seas were settled by the Greeks, whose colonies flourished 
at Theodosia (Caffa), Tanais (Azov) and Byzantium (Constantino- 
ple). They also peopled Lower Italy (Great Greece) and Sicily. 
Messana and Syracuse prospered in the latter country ; and Cuma 
(Naples), Tarentum, the luxurious Sybaris and Croton, in the former. 
Greece also had many other colonies in Illyria, Sardinia, Corsica, 
Spain, Lybia and Egypt. 

I 7. Ancient History of the Land. Heroic Age. 
Hercules. 

The Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most renowned among the 
ancient nations of Greece. The former immigrated from Thracia ; 

Define the situation of Boeotia ? Attica ? Argolis ? Laconia ? What were 
the principal cities in Bceotia, Attica, Argolis and Laconia ? Which of the Gre- 
cian islands is the largest ? Give the names of some renowned Grecian colonies. 



10 

from the latter the central part of Greece obtained its name. The 
common name " Greeks " is said to have been derived from Grsecos, 
one of the Pelasgian chiefs. Cecrops, an Egyptian (according to 
common narrative) went with a colony from Sais to Attica (1582 
B. C), founded a state there, and built the citadel Cecropia, around 
which the city of Athens afterwards sprang up, which derived its 
name from its tutelar goddess Athena (Minerva). He also estab- 
lished the Areopagus, a criminal tribunal, which, in course of time, 
became renowned. Some ages after Cecrops, the Phoenician Cad- 
mos settled in Boeotia (about 1500 B. C.), erected the citadel of 
Thebes and taught the inhabitants the letters of the alphabet, vine 
culture, and the art of preparing metals. 

At the same time (about 1500 B. C.), the Peloponnesus received 
higher culture by the Egyptian Danaus, and 200 years later by the 
Phrygian Pelops. From the latter it derived its name, as he and 
his descendants occupied the most important districts there. The 
atrocious misdeeds and unhappy fate of the Pelopida became the 
principal subject of the Grecian tragedies. Soon after Cecrops, 
Amphictyon established (as reported) an aUiance of different Hell- 
enic towns, called the court of the Amphictyons, the members of 
which managed the affairs of the Delphian temple, arranged the 
Olympian games, and, in later times, also settled the differences of 
the league. 

In the Heroic Age Perseus, Hercules, Theseus, and other heroes 
delivered their country from dangerous beasts and men, for which 
deeds they were greatly celebrated, and even idolized. Their ex- 
ploits are themes of different poetical fictions. Thus : Perseus 
killed Medusa, and seized her petrifying head ; the winged horse, 
Pegasus, carried him on great exploits. Hercules, in the cradle, 
crushed two serpents, and in the service of his kinsman, king 
Eurystheus, performed the twelve achievements celebrated by many 
songs, viz. : He killed the Nemean lion ; cut off the many heads 
of the Lernsean serpent ; caught a huge boar in Arcadia, bound 
him, and carried him on his shoulders to the king ; he overtook a 
swift stag ; fought with the Amazons — fabulous, warlike women in 
Asia Minor — for the shoulder-belt of their queen; cleaned the 
stable of Augias, etc. He even descended twice to the Tartarus, 

^ 7. Give the derivation of the name " Greeks ? " Who was the tutelar 
goddess of Athens ? Who taught the Boeotians the letters of the alphabet ? 
By v^fhom did the Peloponnesus receive a higher culture ? What of Amphictyon ? 
What exploits does tradition narrate of Hercules ? 



11 

and caught the Cerberus, that three-headed dog who watched its 
entrance. 

§ 8. Concluded. Expedition of the Argonauts. Wars of 
Thebes and Troja. 

In this period also occurred the expedition of the Argonauts 
and the wars of Thebes and Troja. The Argonauts sailed to Colchis, 
in Asia Minor, in the Argo, in quest of the golden fleece. They were 
induced, by commercial interests, probably, to undertake this perilous 
voyage. Theseus, Hercules and Orpheus — the latter, by his won- 
derful songs, is said to have tamed even wild beasts — were among 
them; Jason was their leader. After a long, hazardous errant voy- 
age the heroes returned to Greece. 

The Theban war (about 1230 B. C.) was caused by Eteocles 
and Polynices, sons of CEdipus, whose traditional fate was also a 
principal subject of the Grecian stage. Eteocles, contrary to a 
stipulated agreement, desired to govern alone in Thebes. Seven 
sovereigns in vain jointly opposed him, in order to procure his 
brother's rights ; they did not prevail. The hostile brothers, after 
having thoroughly drenched the native soil with blood, killed each 
other in a duel, and all the chiefs but one fell in the combat ; ten 
years later, however, their sons renewed the war against Thebes. 
At last the son of Polynices obtained the government. 

Not many years after this war Paris, son of Priamus, who was 
king of Troja in Asia Minor, carried off Helena, wife of Menelaus, 
king of Sparta. To revenge this outrage, almost all the Greek 
sovereigns united and declared war against Priamus (about 1200 B. 
C.) Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus, became their leader. Con- 
trary winds, for a long time, hindered their departure. The priests 
interpreted this circumstance to be a sign of the displeasure of the 
gods. In order to propitiate them, Iphigenia, Agamemnon's 
daughter, was to be sacrificed, but Minerva (according to tradi- 
tion) withdrew the unhappy virgin from death by a cloud. In the 
contest which ensued, besides Agamemnon and Menelaus, the 
Ajaces excelled by their valor ; Ulysses, king of Ithaca, by prudence 
and cunning; the old Nestor, king of Messenia, by wisdom ; and most 
of all, Achilles, chief of the Thessalians, by his heroic feats. Patro- 

^ 8. Give an account of the expedition of the Argonauts ? Who were its 
leaders ? How did the Theban war originate ? Narrate its principal circum- 
stances. Give the details of the Trojan war. How did it originate ? Who 
were the principal parties on both sides ? 



12 

clus, the faithful friend of Achilles,' was his companion. The chief- 
tains of the Trojans were the courageous Hector, son of Priamus, 
^neas, and "others. As many sovereigns of Asia aided Priamus, the 
war was a protracted one, and lasted (as the Greek poets say), ten 
years. Hector fell under the sword of Achilles, and the latter was 
slain by an arrow of Paris. The city at last was taken by a strata- 
gem. Several Greeks hid in a wooden horse, which the Greeks had 
dedicated to Minerva. The superstitious Trojans pulled this horse 
into the city, and during the night the hidden Greeks, who had thus 
gained an entrance into the city, opened the town-gates to the Gre- 
cian army. Priamus, his remaining sons, and most of the inhabitants 
were killed, the city reduced to a mass of ruins, and the queen, 
her daughters, and the most distinguished ladies were carried away 
as slaves. Tempests rendered the return of the Greeks to their 
country difficult ; Menelaus was carried away to far distant regions, 
and Ulysses strayed about for ten years before he again saw Ithaca ; 
Agamemnon, after his return, was murdered by his wife. The long 
absence of the Greeks from home caused sad disorders in Greece. 
About one hundred years later, still greater calamities befell the 
Peloponnesus, namely, Hercules was (as tradition reports) excluded 
from the dominion of Peloponnesus, part of which belonged to him, 
and Eurystheus compelled his descendants, the Heraclid^e, to for- 
sake their native country. They returned however, after some 
years, and, aided by the Doriens, conquered almost the whole of 
Peloponnesus. A large number of the vanquished left the country 
and founded colonies on the coasts of Asia Minor and the adjacent 
islands, many of which became famous. 

Repeated revolutions finally changed the political form of Greece. 
Irritated by tyra,nnic oppression, some people cast off their yoke, 
others followed /heir example, and on the ruins of the monarchies 
young republics arose, among which Sparta and Athens became 
most renowndd. 

I 9. Sparta. Lyeurgus. 

When the Heraclid^e, Eurystenes and Procles, conquered Sparta, 
(see § 8), both brothers became kings, and thereafter always two of 
their descendants were governing together. This division of the 

What was the duration of the Trojan war? By what stratagem was the city 
captured ? What adversities did Menelaus, Agamemnon and Ulysses experience 
on their return ? What cause induced the Greeks to change their monarchies 
into republics ? Which among the latter became most renowned ? 



13 

highest power was a lasting source of discord in the small State 
until Lycurgus appeared. His brother's widow offered Lycur- 
gus her hand and the throne; she declared herself ready even to 
kill her son, but he repudiated the shameful proposal, saved the life 
of the boy, and governed as his tutor. When Lycurgus saw that his 
generosity even did not shield him against the suspicion of ambition, 
he left his country and went to Creta, where king Minos, by his 
laws, had become renowned ; from thence he went to Asia Minor 
and Egypt, in order to get acquainted with the laws and customs of 
those countries. 

Sparta, becoming still more agitated by lawlessness, longed for 
the absent Lycurgus, who returned and became the legislator of his 
country (about 880 B. C.) He first communicated his design to 
the friends of the fatherland and of order, and then consulted the 
oracle of Delphi as to its feasibility, which declared the contem- 
plated legislation to be the best. To be still surer of success, Lycur- 
gus bade the most distinguished of his confidants, provided with 
arms, to make their appearance at the moment of the mtroduction 
of the laws. The common people received them with approba- 
tion, but the wealthy ones, who lost their riches by equal division 
of the pubhc domain, grew hostile to him and caused a sedition. 
A young fellow struck him in the eye with a stick; the furious 
people seized the offender and delivered him to Lycurgus to punish 
him as he pleased. He received the fellow into his house, but in- 
stead of chastising, he treated him so kindly that he soon became his 
heartiest eulogist. It is said that Lycurgus, in order to render his 
laws inviolable, went on a journey to Delphi, and made the Spar- 
tans take an oath that until his return they would inviolably main- 
tain them ; that the oracle confirmed them, declaring that as long as 
Sparta observed them, she would be the most glorious city in the 
world; and that Lycurgus then, in order to prevent the Spartans 
from breaking their oath at any time, voluntarily starved himself to 
death. 

The rest of Sparta's history, in this period, presents little of in- 
terest. She waged two more wars against the Messenians (743 
and 685 B. C), the second of which ended with the demolition of 
the principal place of this people, and with the loss of their 
liberty. As Sparta's power was foremost in the peninsula, most of 

Give a biography of Lycurgus. What circumstances occurred at the introduc- 
tion of the laws of Lycurgus ? How did he behave against his offender ? In 
what way did he try to render his laws inviolable ? 



14 

the other States conferred on her also the right of supreme leader- 
ship (hegemonia). 

§ lO. Athens. Solon. 

For a long time Attica was divided into several independent dis- 
tricts. Theseus united them (about 1250 B. C.) into one body politic 
and formed a kind of republic, the head of which was Athena. 
His successors, however, retained the royal name down to Codrus. 
This saved Athens, which was attacked by the Herachdse through 
his voluntary death (about 1068 B. C) An oracle had predicted to 
the Athenians that the party whose chief would be killed by the 
enemy should gain the victory. Both parties, therefore, were on 
their guard not to kill the generals, but Codrus, determined to pro- 
cure the victory for the Athenians, went into the camp of the enemy 
in the disguise of a peasant, designedly began a quarrel, and was, in 
the eagerness of dispute, slain by his enemies. Upon learning 
whom they had killed the enemy became discouraged and retreated. 
The Athenians now aboHshed the royal office and put the oldest son 
of Codrus, with the title of " Archon," at the head of the govern- 
ment. His tenure was for life ai>d hereditary ; the archons, how- 
ever, were required to give an account of their administration. 
This form of government lasted 300 years. The office of the archons, 
bearing too strong a resemblance to royal power, was afterward re- 
duced from life to a period of ten years. At last it became annual, 
and to this end was divided among several archons. 

Athens, up to this time, had no written laws. Draco gave a code 
to the State (624 B. C.) However, as they were too severe, and, 
as the ancients said, written in blood, they were enforced only a 
short time. Unrestricted licentiousness then succeeded the utmost 
constraint. Solon Only was able to put an end to this chaotic con- 
dition, for he was prominent by birth and enlightened by studies 
and travels ; moreover, he was so disinterested that he refused the 
royalty. Solon had made himself famous by several meritorious 
achievements, and possessed the universal confidence of the peo- 
ple. He became archon (594 B. C), and the people now de- 
manded new legislation of him. The poorer and indebted portion 
of them desired Solon, as Lycurgus had done, to distribute all of 
the land into equal parts, but Solon chose another expedient, that 

How did Codrus sacrifice his life for his country ? What did the title of 
"Archon" mean in Athens? What was the spirit of the laws of Draco ? Who 
was lawgiver after him ? By what means did Solon try to improve the condition 
of the poor in Athens ? 



15 

of reducing the rate of interest and raising the value of coin. All 
living in bondage, probably on account of indebtedness, were set 
free. These measures, however, satisfied neither the rich nor the 
poor. Solon, in his constitution, also took the middle course. 
After having finished it, he determined to leave Athens, which he 
did, and remained absent for ten years. He obliged the people to 
take an oath not to change his laws during his absence ; that they 
should first satisfy themselves by experience of their propriety. He 
traveled over Egypt, Asia Minor and other countries. In Lydia, 
Croesus received him honorably. When Lycurgus returned to 
Athens, he found the peace of the State disturbed by ambitious 
men. Pisistratus, his relative, had ensnared the people. Once he de- 
signedly wounded himself, and, covered with blood, appeared before 
the people and called for their help, as he pretended, against their 
common enemies, who had attempted to murder him. Then one 
of his confidants demanded a body-guard for the excellent citizen. 
Pisistratus got it, and with its assistance took possession of the castle. 
Solon tried in vain to rekindle the love of liberty in the minds of 
the citizens ; he did not succeed. Pisistratus continued to be unlim- 
ited ruler. Soon after the wise man died (559 B. C.) 

Hipparchus and Hippias, sons of Pisistratus, governed jointly. 
Their abuse of power caused a conspiracy against them. Hippar- 
chus was killed, while Hippias was blocked up in his castle, and his 
children were taken prisoners. This accident forced him to resign 
and to leave Athens (510 B. C.) He fled to Darius, king of 
Persia, who demanded that the tyrant should be reinstated; but 
the Athenians did not comply. Afterward Hippias was killed in 
the battle of Marathon while fighting against his country. 

§ 11. Italy. Rome. Romulus. Junius Brutus. 

In the northern part of Italy (Gallia cisalpina) primitively the 
Galli lived; in the southern (Great Greece) Greek colonists; in the 
middle, the Hetrurii, Latini, Samnitae and other people. The 
Hetrurii, (Etruski, Tuski) diffused themselves over modern Tus- 
cany, and were early distinguished by their culture. Their alpha- 

What is said of Solon's travels ? How did Pisistratus ensnare the people? 
What did one of his confidants demand for him ? Of what did he take posses- 
sion ? What did Solon try to rekindle ? Did he succeed ? How did Hippar- 
chus and Hippias govern in Athens ? What was their fate ? 1 11. Who were 
the inhabitants of northern and middle Italy ? 



16 

bet is the foundation of all sorts of European letters,, and the Tus- 
can order of columns is older than the Dorian. 

In the south, Latium bordered on Hetruria. An Arcadian colony 
settled on the Tiber (about 1240 B. C.) The people in that vicinity are 
said to have received the name of Latini from King Latinus. .-Eneas 
who, after the destruction of Troja, arrived there with a troop of 
fuoitive Trojans, is reported to have married his daughter and in- 
herited his realm. Alba Longa becajiie the capital of Latium. Ac- 
cording to tradition, Xumitor, king of Alba Longa, was deprived 
of the throne by his brother AmuHus. His daughter had two 
sons, Romulus and Remus, whom Amulius caused to be thrown into 
the Tiber, because he was afraid that they would deprive him again 
of the government. The boys were saved through the pity of a 
shepherd, and brought up by his wife. "When it was discovered that 
they were Xumitor's grandsons, they caused a sedition against Amu- 
lius, who was killed, and their grandfather again became king. Nu- 
mitor permitted his enterprising grandsons to lay the foundation of 
a new settlement, and they built Rome on the Palatine hill (753 B. C.) 
A band of their compatriots, who were still rude shepherds, assisted 
them in this undertaking. In order to rapidly augment the num- 
ber of citizens, Romulus, according to tradition, opened an asylum 
for fugitive criminals, exiles and runaway slaves. As the neighbor- 
ino- people refused to give their daughters as wives to his colonists, 
he allured them by games and abducted them. The Sabines avenged 
this outrage with their arms, a battle ensued, but the newly married 
wives prostrated themselves suppHantly between the combatants and 
mediated peace. The Sabini (Quirites) then settled in Rome, and 
Titus Tatius, their commander, became regent with Romulus, each 
communitv retaining its own senate. Romulus governed jointly 
with the senate and the people, but his ambition caused him to en- 
large his power more and more. He killed not only his colleague 
Tatius, but also his brother, and at last he was himself dispatched 
by the senators. After the reign of Romulus six kings are said 
k) have governed Rome for 245 years. 

Numa Pompilius gave Rome its State religion, built temples, and 
regulated the divine service. He always kept peace with the neigh- 
boring people, and promoted agriculture. Servius TuUius, the son of 

What colony settled on the Tiber? From whom did the Latini receive their 
name ? What of ^neas ? What town was the capital of Latium ? What is 
said of Romulus and Remus? Of the first settlers in Rome ? How did they 
obtain wives ? How were the Sabini reconciled ? Why was Romulus killed ? 
By whom ? What of Numa Pompilius ? Of Servius Tullius ? 



17 

a female slave, ameliorated the hard condition of the slaves, provided 
for a more convenient classification of the citizens, and is reported 
to have entertained the idea of aboHshing royalty. He was murdered 
in a conspiracy which was headed by his son-in-law, Tarquinius, 
and his own daughter Tullia, wife of Tarquinius (533 B. C.) The 
unnatural daughter drove over the corpse of her father. The 
street in which this crime was committed received the name of the 
"nefarious." 

Tarquin, called the Proud, was very cruel while he was king. He 
put his adversaries to death ; he did not even spare the life of his 
brother-in-law. Junius Brutus, the son of the murdered man, could 
only protect himself against the rage of his uncle by feigning to be 
insane. Liberty was also greatly oppressed by the king. He gov- 
erned without the senate and community, and forbade popular 
meetings, the last remedy of the people against his willfulness. A 
numerous body-guard of strangers had to watch for the safety of 
the tyrant. The Romans, for a long time, bore this despotism in 
silence ; but when a son of Tarquinius did violence to Lucretia, a 
virtuous, highly-esteemed Roman lady, and she, unable to bear 
her dishonor, plunged a dagger into her bosom, the patricians, who 
bitterly hated the unlimited dominion of the king, made use of this 
favorable opportunity to break the chains which enslaved the 
country. They instantly locked the city gates. Brutus showed 
the people the bloody corpse of Lucretia, represented the crimes of 
the king and his family, and reminded the people of all the wrong 
and disgrace they had suffered. His eloquence roused the cour- 
age of the senators, and the people awoke from their torpid con- 
dition. A sentence of perpetual banishment was pronounced against 
Tarquinius (who happened. to be absent from Rome), and against 
his family. Every one who would do or speak anything for the king's 
advantage, was to be adjudged guilty of death, and Rome was de- 
clared a republic, at the head of which two consuls were to govern 
(509 B. C.) As Tarquinius, informed of this event, hastened to 
Rome, he found the gates locked. Meanwhile Brutus, in the Roman 
camp, urged the army to revolt against the king, and when Tar- 
quinius returned, he found the soldiers also hostile to him. He 
went to his son, who was reigning in Gabii. The first consuls 
were Brutus and Collatinus, Lucretia's husband. 

What is said of Tarquinius and liis wife? How did Tarquinius govern the 
Romans ? What of Brutus ? Narrate the death of Lucretia ? What conse- 
quences did it cause for Tarquinius and his family ? How did Brutus behave 
at this event ? WTio were the first consuls of Rome ? 

(2) 



18 
SECOND OHAPTER-HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION. 



^12. Legislation. Constitutions of Lyeurgus and Solon. 
Constitution of Rome under the Kings. 

The Egyptians, probably, had the most ancient among all known 
constitutions. They were divided into four or six castes (immutable, 
hereditary classes). Every one had to stay in the caste in which he 
was born, and to carry on the trade of his father. The most re- 
spectable was the caste of priests, and the most despised that of herds- 
men. The priests dictated to the kings how they should act, and 
judged them after their death. They administered the highest offices, 
educated the youth, wrote the history of their country, and were 
at the same time judges, physicians, architects ; in short, the 
possessors of all scientific knowledge. The priests and the soldiers 
were the owners of all, or at least most of the land. 

A similar system of castes was also established in many oriental 
regions, e. g., in Media, Persia, Bactria, and especially in India, where, 
even in ancient times, the Brahmins, that is, those who had issued 
from the head of the god Brahma, enjoyed almost divine honor. 
History is silent concerning the oldest constitution of China, but 
considering the constant uniformity of the culture of the Chinese 
we can assume, nearly with certainty, that it was more or less similar 
to the present one — a constitution, according to which the emperor 
is held to be God's vicegerent on earth, is high-priest and family-head 
of the empire, and requires servile obedience from the inhabitants 
of the realm. 

The constitution of the ancient Hebrews was also very similar to 
the Egyptian. The priests governed them, though in Jehovah's 
name, and their preponderating influence was felt even under the 
kings. They took; besides other revenues, the tithe of all the 
products of the soil. The least trespass against civil law, and the 
smallest profanation of the Sabbath, were punished by death. Every 
seventh year (sabbatical year) the people were compelled to leave 
their fields unplowed, and everything that grew spontaneously 
belonged to the poor and the stranger ; the native slaves were manu- 

§12. Give tlae outlines of the constitution of tlie ancient Egyptians ? Wliat of 
their castes ? Of their kings, soldiers, priests ? Wliat form of constitutions 
had the oriental regions, especially India and China ? Describe the constitution 
of the ancient Hebrews ? What of sabbatical years ? 



19 

initted and all debts remitted. Every fiftieth year was a jubilee, in 
which every family recovered its real property. 

The two most celebrated constitutions of antiquity were the 
Spartan and the Athenian. Lycurgus, to quicken the warlike spirit 
of the people, re-established the ancient Dorian statutes of his native 
town. The legislative power was held only by Spartans proper (the 
descendants of the victorious Dores). The Lacedsemonii (the de- 
scendants of the vanquished Achaei), had no share in the public 
government, but otherwise they lived unrestrained. The senate 
(council of the aged) prepared the transactions. The two kings were 
the executors of the laws, presiding members of the religion, and 
generals of the army. Five ephori administered the high offices, 
presided in the senate and at the meetings of the community, and 
were the judges of the kings, etc. 

The principal source of disorder in the Spartan state was the 
disproportionate distribution of property among the citizens. Lycur- 
gus, • therefore, divided the lands into equal parts, and forbade the 
proprietors from selling their estates. The Helots (descendants of 
the town of Helos, which the Spartans had conquered, and other 
vanquished people), were obliged to cultivate the estates of the Dorii, 
and to deliver to the latter a certain proportion of wheat, wine, 
etc., etc. They also attended to the handiwork. The money was 
made of iron, in order not to tempt the people to greediness. The 
dwellings and clothing were of the simplest nature, and the meals of 
the men were taken in common. The black broth, a national dish 
of the Spartans, was notorious abroad. A king, who had heard a 
great deal of talk about it, once engaged a Spartan cook to prepare 
it for him, but found the dish unsavory. " I can easily believe it," 
remarked the cook ; " our soup tastes well only to those who have 
bathed in the Eurotas." Sparta had no walls, as the valor of the in- 
habitants was relied on to defend the city. Bravery was rewarded 
with honor, and cowardliness punished by scoff and exclusion from 
offices of honor. 

The children were educated for the State ; sickly ones, immediately 
after birth, were thrown into an abyss of Mount Taygetus by special 

What is said of the Jubilee ? Which were the two most celebrated constitu- 
tions of antiquity? Delineate the constitution of Sparta. Functions of the 
senate ? Of the kings ? Of the ephori ? What of the division of lands ? 
Who cultivated them ? What was money made of? What about dwellings and 
clothing? Meals? How was bravery rewarded and cowardliness punished? 
How were the boys and girls educated ? What was the fate of sickly infants ? 



20 

officers. From the commencement of the seventh year the educa- 
tion was public. All the boys of the city, divided into certain classes, 
lived under the control of particular inspectors, who were appointed 
by the State. The young boys were obliged to sleep on rushes, and 
were instructed in the arts of running, wrestling, throwing, fencing 
and swimming. The girls, too, were trained in such exercises, as they 
Avould tend to develop them into healthy, strong women. At table, 
all received only moderate portions. In order to harden the boys 
against pain, they were sometimes flogged until bloody, and even to 
death, at the altar of Diana. Some, in order to show their con- 
stancy, permitted themselves to be flogged until they dropped dead, 
without even uttering a word of complaint ; they were also taught 
to give short and pertinent answers (laconic sayings became pro- 
verbial), and to respect old age. The arts and sciences were despised 
by the Spartans ; they were even forbidden to cultivate them. They 
only learned penmanship, so far as it was necessary, and sacred and 
warlike airs, which were sung at festivals and before battles. Under 
such a constitution the Spartans became a valiant, powerful and 
liberty -loving people ; but they were, nevertheless, also superstitious, 
rude, and very often cruel. 

The milder, and in general the best legislation of the ancient 
world, was that of Solon. In Athens, the citizens collectively 
wielded the supreme power. They confirmed all laws, resolved 
on war or peace, and voted for the offices. The senate took care of 
current affairs, presided over the meetings of the community, and 
reported their bills to them. The areopagus was not only the judge 
of capital crimes, but also superintended the religion of the State, 
the education of the youth, and the laws and public morals. Its 
judiciary sessions were held at night, and in darkness. Solon com- 
pared these two courts with two anchors — as they firmly controlled 
the agitated and turbulent State. The meetings of the people were to 
be checked by them." He prescribed also the duties of married people, 
parents and children. The children of the warriors who were 
killed in the military service were educated at the expense of the 
State. Whoever offended a slave could be sued at law, and no one 
Avas permitted to strike a slave. For that reason it was proverbially 
said that the slaves in Athens were more independent than free men 

What about the flogging of boys ? What is the meaning of a " laconic 
answer"? What were the effects of the laws of Lycurgus? What rights had 
the citizens in Athens .'' The senate ? The areopagus? Who provided for the 
children of the warriors ? How were slaves treated ? 



21 

in many other States. Solon's penalties were moderate. He pun- 
ished idleness, the principal source of impoverishment, and of all the 
vices in the State, severely, considering it a great offence. He desired 
that his laws should not be valid longer than loo years Later, the 
law of expulsion (ostracism) was introduced, by which any citizen who 
by his power, authority or even by his public merits, seemed to be 
dangerous to the political equality, could be banished for ten years. 
The ground- work of the Roman constitution under the kings was 
this : Under Romulus, the citizens of Rome were formed into two 
tribes (tribus, communities), the Latine and the Sabinian. Later 
still, a third tribe of the Tuscan race was added to these. Each 
tribe was divided into ten curiae, and represented by loo senators, 
who were distinguished by age and intelHgence. The senate possessed 
the greatest part of the governmental power ; but, in important mat- 
ters, the curice (comitia curiata), that is, all members of the three 
tribes, decided what was best to be done. The legislative power, es- 
pecially, was vested in them. The executive power and the command 
in war was left to the king. The members of the three tribes were 
called patricians (noblemen). At first the patricians alone pos- 
sessed, not only the political power, but also the conquered lands. 
They had clients, that is, hereditary tenants, to whom they left the 
usufruct of land, and gave assistance if they went to law ; therefore 
they were called their patrons. Foreigners who had obtained the 
rights of .citizenship were called plebeians. These were partly immi- 
grants of a later time, and partly inhabitants of the conquered ter- 
ritory, and embraced not only common people, but also the noble- 
men of the conquered cities. Among them were farmers,. husband- 
men, rich men and poor men. They were otherwise free, but were 
deprived of the right of suffrage. Tarquinius Priscus added to every 
tribe of patricians a tribe of plebeians, which he formed from the 
richest and most distinguished plebeians. Servius TuUius, for the 
sake of taking a census, divided all citizens into six classes and 193 
centuriae. To the first class belonged the richest ; to the two last 
classes, the poorest citizens (proletarians). The former numbered 
ninety-eight centurige, the last only one. When they voted in cen- 

What were Solon's penalties ? What vice did he punish severely ? Why ? 
What is the meaning of "ostracism"? Why was ostracism introduced? 
What was the ground-work of the Roman constitution ? What was the power 
of the senate; of the kings; of the curise? Explain the terms "patricians," 
"plebeians," "patrons" and "clients "? Into what classes did Servius Tullius, 
divide all citizens ? Which got the advantage by this division ? Why ? 



22 

turi^e (comitia centuriata), the plebeians could, according to this 
division, be easily outvoted by the patricians. The lowest class was 
exempt from military service, and, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. 
Servius, besides, divided the plebeians, according to their residence, 
into four municipal and twenty-six rural wards, which also were 
called tribus. 

§ 13. Religions. Zoroaster. Buddha. Kong-fut-se. 
Grecian and Roman Religions. 

The oldest form of religion probably was fetichism, which was 
the worship of natural objects. It was expected by the worshipers 
that these objects would keep pain and suffering from them, and 
bring them fortune and happiness. There were two kinds of fetich- 
ism, viz., the worship of animals, e. g., in Egypt; and the wor- 
ship of stars, e. g., in Arabia. Men also, particularly in Greece and 
Rome, were often idolized, either by gratitude or by base flattery. 
The deity was humanized in all religions, by attributing to it both 
the good qualities and the frailties, often even vices of men. 

The priests conserved and enlarged the religious knowledge of 
the nations; but they also propagated and fostered superstition, 
enthralled the conscience, indulged in the desire of domineering, 
and usurped the civil authority. They interpreted the future, espe- 
cially in Greece and in the Roman empire, by observing the intes- 
tines of sacrificed animals, and the flight of birds, and by oracles. 
For money, they permitted the oracles to answer according to the 
wishes of the questioners. The greater part of the answers of the 
oracles were equivocal. These practices, however, contributed to 
soften the habits and manners of the people, and sometimes pre- 
vented bloody wars. 

Sacrifices of fruits, animals and men were established almost 
everywhere. The better educated portion of civil society, indeed, 
had a purer religion, but, from fear of the populace, it was practiced 
and propagated only in secret, especially in the mysteries (secret 
meetings), where a higher religious doctrine was reserved and com- 
municated to the initiated members. 

The two principal deities of the Egyptians were Osiris and Isis ; 

From what was the lowest class exempted ? § 13. Which is the oldest form 
of religion ? Give examples of fetichism. In what countries were men often 
idolized? What is said of priests ? Especially in Rome and Greece ? What of 
oracles ? Of sacrifices ? Of mysteries ? What were the principal deities of 
the Egyptians ? 



23 

the former probably meant the sun; the latter, the moon, or nature 
in general. Isis presided over agriculture. The Egyptians also 
worshiped many animals, among them the useful bull, especially 
the Aphis, in the city of Memphis, the stork-like bird ibis, which 
destroys serpents, the dangerous crocodile, cats, etc. The Egyp- 
tians believed in the transmigration of the soul. This superstition 
probably was the reason why they embalmed their dead, which, 
with fillets tied around them, were carefully preserved in subter- 
ranean apartments. There these mummies (as they are called), 
remained undisturbed for thousands of years. 

There also were oracles in Egypt. The most ancient existed in 
Meroe. Particular priestesses were appointed for the oracles in the 
temples of Osiris and Isis, where they slept, and in their dreams 
learned the will of the deity. Even the sacred bull in Memphis 
promulgated oracles. — The religion of the Chaldeans and Babylo- 
nians was similar to the Egyptians. 

Among the Arians and Bactrians (in Media and Persia), the 
maga Zoroaster was prominent as a legislator and religious reformer. 
In later times, when these were subjugated by the Persians, the 
latter also accepted his doctrine. His followers believed him to be 
the author of the Zend-Avesta (" the living word,") which is writ- 
ten in the Zend language. According to the doctrine contained in 
this book, the eternal, uncreated universe is the primitive fountain 
of all things. It created two other divine beings, a good and a bad 
one, or the god of light and the god of darkness, Ormuzd and 
Arihman. The priests were called magi. 

The sacred books of the Hindoos, the Vedas (" knowledge,") 
are written in the ancient Sanscrit language, which is now dead. 
According to these books, Bram (primitively self-existent), is the foun- 
dation of all existence, from whom emanated three gods: Brah- 
ma (the sun), Vishnu (the air and water), and Sivah (the fire). Brah- 
ma is the creator, Vishnu the conservator, and Sivah the de- 
stroyer of the world. Vishnu is said to have often descended to 
the world to set it right. Several sects emanated from the adora- 
tion of one of the three divinities, which at various times combated 
each other. Besides, the Vedas command was to worship the gods 

What of their worship of animals ? Of their belief in transmigration of the 
soul ? Why did they embalm their dead ? What are mummies ? What of the 
oracles of the Egyptians ? Who was legislator and religious reformer of the 
Arians and Bactrians? Give some of Zoroastei-'s doctrines. What is the mean- 
ing of the word " Zend-Avesta" ? What are the sacred books of the Hindoos 
called ? In what language are they written ? 



24 

by sacrifices and alms, to bathe, to atone for sins, to mortify ourselves, 
to fast, and to go on pilgrimages. There were also, in olden times, a 
class of monks (Fakirs) who endeavored to sanctify themselves by cruel 
mortification. The horrible custom of the wives of the Brahmins, 
to burn themselves after the death of their husbands, is also very old 
and not yet entirely abolished. 

Yet another religion, Buddhism (Lamaism), was instituted in 
India (about 500 B. C.) Its founder received the surname of Bud- 
dah (the wise) and Gautamas (the saint), from its confessors. They 
believed that the high-priest (Delai-Lama) is his representative, in 
whom his soul is incarnate. Their priests (bonzes) five together 
in convents. Gautamas himself ordered his followers to lead a 
moral hfe. The religion of the Chinese Avas reformed by Kong-fu- 
tse, (about 600 B. C.) His religion, of which the well educated 
Chinese are adherents, proclaims many excellent maxims, viz. : 
" First rule yourself, then you are fit to rule a family, then a coun- 
try." " Wise is the man who has a profound knowledge of things, 
submits to reason and follows the path of virtue and justice. He 
is his own impeacher, witness and judge." "Do to another what 
you would he should do unto you ; and do not unto another what 
you would not be done vuito. This law is the foundation and prin- 
ciple of all the rest." 

The ten commandments, familiar to all, is the ground- work of the 
Mosaic (Jewish) religion. According to these, God is the supreme Be- 
ing, who created and arranged the universe in six days, and who must 
not be represented by any image. His name is Jehovah, that is, the 
Being which has been, is, and will be. He is the national god of 
the Jews, and their Lord — a god of vengeance, who punishes the sins 
of the fathers even to the fifth generation, and to whom man ought 
to sacrifice everything, even his children, as Abraham, resignedly, was 
about to do. The doctrine of the immortality of the human spirit 
was unknown to the Hebrews before the Babylonian captivity. 
They learned it then. The Jewish religion has a great number of 
ceremonies and holydays. The weekly holyday was the Sabbath. 
There were three other and longer holy periods, of which the Easter 
festival was the most important, and it lasted seven days. By the 

Give the outline of their contents. What did the Vedas command ? What 
of the Fakirs and of the custom observed by the widows of the Brahmins ? 
What other religion was instituted in India ? Who reformed the religion of the 
Chinese ? Quote some of its ma:xims. What is the groundwork of the Mosaic 
religion ? What of its ceremonies and festivals ? 



25 

moral law, the Israelites were forbidden to commit thett, murder, 
perjury, etc. Moses also established sanitary laws, viz., ablutions of 
the body, and abstinence from the use of pork. The first aimed at 
cleanliness ; as to pork, that was, perhaps, unwholesome in that hot 
country. In later times, this rehgion was enlarged by many addi- 
tions, such as the doctrine of a devil, of angels, etc. It resembles, 
in many respects, that of the Egyptians. 

The Greeks idolized all the forces of nature. Jupiter, to them, 
was the god of air and hght, and also of life ;' therefore they called 
him" father of the gods and men. Apollo was the god of music and 
poetry ; Minerva, the goddess of wisdom ; Venus, the goddess of 
beauty and love; Mars, the god of war; Juno, Jupiter's spouse, 
presided over wedlock ; Vulcan, over fire ; Neptune, over the ocean ; 
Pluto ruled in Tartarus. Besides these there were many lesser gods 
and semi-gods. Pan was the god of shepherds ; Pomona, the god- 
dess of fruit ; Ceres, the goddess of grains ; Flora, the goddess of 
flowers. Every fountain and tree was protected by a deity, the 
nymphs and the dryads. The Muses presided over song and other 
arts ; and the Graces dispensed charms. But all gods, even Jupi- 
ter, were subjected to immutable Fate. The shadows of the dead 
descended into the nether world (Orcus), where they were judged. 
The good were happy in the Elysian fields, but the wicked suffered 
different torments in Tartarus, Mythology was further developed 
by the poets, who ingeniously applied it to their works. 

The Roman religion resembled that of the Greeks, and was 
established by King Numa Pompilius, who called it a revelation of 
the nymph Egeria, The Romans also idolized abstract ideas and 
moral qualities of man, viz., they had a goddess of liberty, of 
honor, of victory, of chastity, of patriotism, etc. They also con- 
sidered reUgion as a fulcrum of the State, and therefore it was freely 
used as the handmaid of poUtics, in order to lead the superstitious 
people. The sacerdotal offices were State ofiices. Particular priests 
watched the flight of birds, the lightning, and the intestines of ani- 
mals. The State affairs were conducted according to their interpre- 
tation. The virgins of Vesta watched the eternal fire ; they were 
not allowed to marry during the term of their service. Human 

What sanitary laws did Moses establish ? How was this religion enlarged 
in later times ? Name the principal Grecian deities ? What do the terms 
"Orcus," "Elysian fields" and " Tai-tarus " signify? Who established the 
Roman religion ? How did it influence politics ? What office had the virgins of 
Vesta ? What of human sacrifices in Rome ? 



26 

sacrifices were also sometimes offered. After the disastrous battle at 
Cannge (216 B. C), several persons were burned alive in Rome. 

In general, both the Romans and the Greeks were very super- 
stitious. If a public meetirig took place, and during its session a 
weasel ran over the road, the meeting was adjourned. Particular 
soothsayers were appointed by the authorities, in order to call the 
dead from Orcus. The crime of sacrilege was punished with death ; 
this penalty was inflicted even for pulling up a shrub in a sacred 
grove. Philosophy was often at war with religion ; philosophers 
who doubted the existence of the gods were put to death. Thus 
perished Socrates; Anaxagoras had to flee from Athens; so had 
Diagoras, for whose head a prize was offered. 

^14. Arts and Sciences. Buildings of the Egyptians and 
Greeks. Pyramids. Homer. 

The ar.ts and sciences were first cultivated in the Orient, but 
owing to the political and priestly despotism which oppressed the 
nations, they never attained a high degree of perfection there. The 
most, ancient writing was a kind of painting. Later, the hiero- 
glyphs (sacred signs) were invented, by painting or drawing only a 
part instead of the whole, and representing abstract objects in a sen- 
sual manner. In this way an eye stood for sight ; an open hand, for 
benevolence ; a scaling-ladder, for the siege of a town. Other hier- 
oglyphs designated single sounds, and represented letters. The 
hieroglyphs proper were used by the Egyptian priests. From 
the hieroglyphs writing by words originated. This kind of writing 
was used by the Chinese. Finally, writing by letters was also in- 
vented, which, with few signs, represents the principal sounds, and 
joins them into words. The inventors of letters were probably the 
Phoenicians; it is, at least, certain that they brought them to 
Europe. The ancients used to write on linen, parchment, tablets 
which were covered with wax, on Egyptian paper, etc. The last 
was prepared from the root of a plant called Papyrus, which grew 
in abundance by the river Nile. 

In Egypt, high pyramids and obelisks and majestic temples and 
palaces were built. The pyramids, about forty of which still stand in 

What of the superstition of the Greeks and Romans ? Examples. Fate of 
Socrates and other philosophers. ^ 14. In what countries were the sciences and 
arts first cultivated ? What was the most ancient form of writing ? What are 
hieroglyphs ? Who probably invented the letters ? On what materials did the 
ancients write ? Describe the pyramids of Egypt, and the pyramid of Cheops. 
For what purpose were they constructed ? 



27 

central Egypt, were quadrilateral, getting narrower towards the top, 
built on hills, without doors, furnished with secret passages, vaults 
and chambers. The stones were laid over one another, without 
mortar, and were held together by their weight. One of the extant 
pyramids (the pyramid of Cheops) is 468 feet high, and stands on 
a hill 200 feet in height. It can be mounted by graduated steps. 
With the material used in this pyramid a wall could be built around 
the whole kingdom of Spain. One hundred thousand men are said 
to have been employed in its construction for twenty years. These 
gigantic edifices were probably designed to be the tombs of the 
kings, but others think that they were only built by them for 
show. The obelisks were fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, and 
consisted of a single stone of the hardest granite, which was finely 
polished. Some were transported by the Roman emperors to Rome, 
where they yet stand, and one (Cleopatra's needle) was removed to 
New York to decorate Central Park (1883). 

It is said that the immense Labyrinth at the Lake of Moeris 
consisted of twelve covered yards, and contained 1500 apartments 
above, and as many under the earth. This artificial lake was 
destined to receive the waters of the Nile, and to regulate its useful 
inundations. In the middle of it two pyramids rose. King Mceris 
either ordered it dug or had the flood-gates built which connected it 
with the Nile. It was of the highest importance to Egypt. The 
structures in Upper Egypt were still grander ; the remains still found 
there are older than 3,000 years. Those of Thebes most excel among 
them. The plain where this enormous city of one hundred gates 
was situated, is covered with its ruins — temples, palaces, colonnades, 
obelisks, colossi, sphinxes and subterranean tombs. There are sev- 
eral alleys, decorated with from two hundred to six hundred colos- 
sal sphinxes. One of the palaces is of almost immeasurable mag- 
nitude. A large portico forms the vestibule of a covered hallj the 
roof of which is supported by 1 34 columns ; every column of the 
two middle rows is sixty-five feet high and thirty feet wide. More- 
over, there are the royal tombs (as they are called), built under 
ground, more than three miles long, with many labyrinths, chambers 
and halls. The walls, along which mummies are piled up, are 
adorned with relieves and paintings in fresco, preserved with won- 
derful freshness, which represent, in part, rural occupations, chases, 

What of the obelisks? Of Cleopatra's needle? What of the Labyrinth? 
Of the Lake of Mceris ? Of the monuments of Thebes ? Of the royal tombs ? 



28 

navigation, festivals ; in part, animals, tools, etc.; in part land and 
sea fights. All these monuments of sculpture and painting, how- 
ever, were far behind the Grecian works of art in accomplishment. 

The Indian monuments of art, constructed in very ancient time, 
are also remarkable. These consist of temples, grottos and pyra- 
mids, partly under ground, partly above it, cut in rocks. The 
grottos of Ellora (in the central part of Hindostan) occupy over two 
miles in the inside of a mountain. In the pagod (temple) of Cha- 
lambron, there is a sanctuary with a portico three hundred and sixty 
feet in length, and two hundred and sixty in width. Nearly one 
thousand columns, each thirty feet high, support the level roof. 

The city of Babylon was renowned for its hundred gates and 
enormous walls, for the bridge leading over the Euphrat, for the sus- 
pended gardens (/. e., planted on terrasses which were supported 
by high arches), for the temple of Belus, and other wonders of ar- 
chitecture. Either Semiramis or Nebuchadnezzar are reported to 
have built them. 

In China, Tshing-wang (247-210 B. C.) is said to have con- 
nected and finished the walls which different princes had erected 
against the incursions of the northern enemies. This was the ori- 
gin of the great Chinese wall of one thousand five hundred miles in 
length, and which is fortified by towers. 

In Rome, Tarquinius Priscus and his successors built the gigan- 
tic sinks (subterranean canals), which carried off the filthy water 
from the lower parts of the city ; the citadel, called capitol, with 
the . threefold temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, and the Circus 
Maximus, designed for prize-fighting. 

Poesy, too, first flourished in the Orient. The Indian poetry 
attracts by a peculiar tenderness of feeling, and by elegance. It 
possesses great epic and dramatic poems, which are written in Sans- 
crit. ^ Among the Hebrews, David and Isaiah became famous by 
the sublimity of their poems. 

In Greece, Orpheus wrote poetry, as also did Hesiod, father of 
the didactic poem, the poetess Sappho, and Homer (about 933 
B. C), the greatest poet in ancient times. The latter was born in 

Give a description of the Indian monuments ; of the grottos of Ellora ; of 
the pagod of Chalambron ; of the wonders of architecture in Babylon ; of the 
great Chinese wall ; of the large public buildings in Rome. What was the 
Circus Maximus destined for? What is the character of Indian and Hebrew 
poetry ? Who among the latter excelled in poetry ? Who in Greece ? Who was 
the greatest Greek poet ? 



29 

Ionia. He is said to have been poor and blind. The subject of 
his "IHad" is the Trojan war; of the Odyssea Ulysses (Odysseus). 
It is said that Lycurgus brought his poems to Greece, where they 
were sung publicly by rhapsodists. It is probable that to both 
poems several portions were added by later poets. The fabuHst, 
^sop, a native from Phrygia, also deserves to be mentioned in this 
connection. 

In Egypt and Babylonia, the priests also practiced astronomy, 
and computed the solar and lunar years. In the former country 
they also practiced medicine; but anatomy they could carry on 
only in secret, on account of the superstition of the Egyptians. 
There were particular physicians for every disease. In Greece, too, 
many priests were also physicians. As time-keepers, water-clocks 
(clepsydrae), and sand-glasses were used. The invention of our fig- 
ures, according to the testimony of the Arabs, is to be ascribed to 
the Indians. 

Philosophy could not prosper in the despotic Orient, but it 
made much better progress among the free Greeks, among whom, 
even in this period, during the time of Solon, the seven wise men, 
as they are usually called, appeared. Their doctrines referred to 
moral and political topics, viz : "A State prospers best if the citi- 
zens obey the magistrates, and these the laws." — (Solon). "Avarice 
is the center of all mischief." — (Bias). " Know thyself. "-^(Chilon). 
"Pardon is more beautiful than vengeance ; the former is human, 
the latter is brutish." — (Pittacus). Thales was also a celebrated 
astronomer and mathematician. Bias excelled by his eloquence, 
which he employed in the defense of the poor and innocent. Pit- 
tacus freed his country from tyranny and anarchy, and, having 
restored order, freely resigned the supreme power intrusted to him. 

^ IS. Commerce. Phoenieians. Invention of Glass. 

All commerce was at first carried on by exchange ; it, however, 
became more perfect by the invention of money and navigation. 
Money was originally weighed to the seller. As the ancients did 
not understand the use of the compasses, they carried on shipping 

What is the subject of his two great poems ? What sciences did the priests 
cultivate in Egypt and Babylonia ? What kind of time-keepers did the ancients 
have ? Who invented our figures ? Where did philosophy best prosper ? Name 
some of the seven wise men of Greece. § 15. How was commerce carried on 
in ancient times ? By what inventions was it improved ? 



30 

only along the coasts of the ocean. The large ships had fifty rud- 
ders or more, arranged in two, three or four rows, either above one 
another, or together. 

The greatest trading people of the first period were the Phoeni- 
cians. The situation of their country on the sea coast invited them 
to engage in commerce and navigation, and the sterility of their 
land compelled them thereto. They had colonies on Cyprus and 
Rhodus, in Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and Africa. They boldly 
passed the straits of Gibraltar, and advanced as far as England and 
the coast of Prussia, Cadiz (Gadir) became their trading-place. 
The articles of commerce consisted of glass and purple, two domes- 
tic products which they are said to have invented ; cotton, from 
Egypt; ivory, spices, gold and jewels, from Arabia and India; 
silver, from Spain ; tin, from England, and amber, which, on ac- 
count of its scarcity, was then as valuable as gold, from the coasts of 
the Baltic Sea. Glass was used by the ancients only for the embel- 
lishment of the ceilings and walls of rooms, and, as an article of 
trade, to deceive rude people therewith, and to exchange it for pre- 
cious goods. Houses had no glass windows, but instead thereof 
curtains or lattices. For drinking purposes, the ancients had 
earthen pitchers, or goblets made of metal. The mirrors, too, were 
of metal. Besides the Phoenicians, the Greeks and Babylonians 
also carried on an extensive commerce. 

EXERCISES. 

Which States are believed to be the most ancient, and for what reasons ? What 
persons of the earliest time in the history of Egypt, Babylonia, Palestine and 
Greece are called the most remarkable ? At what time are they said to have lived ? 
What are the names of the greatest conquerors in Egypt, Babylonia, Palestine and 
Persia ? The most famous heroes of Greece ? What is the name of the greatest 
Grecian poet ? What foreigners essentially advanced civilization in Greece, and in 
what way ? ' By what event was Sparta raised to the highest power in the Pelo- 
ponnesus? What two States became republics almost at the same time, and in what 
years ? Why is it not probable that Rome has had only seven kings ? Who con- 
tributed most to the deliverance of Rome ? In what parts do the constitutions of 
the Egyptians and Indians resemble each other ? In what points does the legis- 
lation of Solon and Lycurgus ? In what particular is the former superior ? Where 
did commerce niost flourish ? 

Of what material were the mirrors made ? Pitchers and goblets ? What 
other nations carried on commerce ? 



81 

SECOND PERIOD. 

From tl^e Greco-Persiar| Wars to Err|peror Augustus. 
Glorious Age of Greece, Macedoqia's Univer- 
. sal Moqarcl^Lj, Romarj Republic, 
From 500 to 30 B, C. 



riEST CHAPTER-POLITICAL HISTORY. 



GREECE. 



1. ITS GLORIOUS AQE-500 TO 430 B. Oi 



§ 16. Persian Wars. Battle at Marathon. 

Darius Hystaspes, after having conquered Macedonia, longed 
for the possession also of beautiful Greece. He soon found 
pretexts for war. Darius ordered the Athenians to reinstate the 
expelled tyrant, Hippias; they refused to do so, and demanded that 
he should be delivered up to them instead. Besides, as the Greeks in 
Asia Minor had revolted against Darius, they assisted them (see § 5). 
Hippias, too, excited the king to take vengeance. Consequently 
Darius was the more determined to wage war against Athens, and 
even against the whole of Greece. He began war by sea and by 
land (492 B, C), but his fleet was wrecked in a storm in doubUng 
the promontory of Athos (Capo Santo), and his land forces also were 
beaten by the Thracians in small fights. Darius, nevertheless, did 
not give up his purpose of war, but armed again ; at the same time 
he dispatched heralds to the different Grecian States demanding 
earth and water as an acknowledgment of their submission. Sev- 
eral States sent him this tribute ; but the Athenians threw the her- 
alds into ditches and wells, saying: " Get your earth and water 
there ! " Nor did they fare any better at Sparta. 

I 16. Under what pretext did Darius Hystaspes wage war against the 
Greeks ? What success did he have in the first campaign ? How did the 
Athenians and Spartans treat his heralds ? 



32 

This violation of the international law enraged Darius. He 
sent a still greater army (500,000 men, as some report), and a fleet 
of six hundred ships. Hippias was also with the Persian troops. 
They carried chains and a huge marble block — the former to be 
used in taking the Athenians in fetters to the king, the latter to be 
erected as a trophy in the conquered land. The fleet sailed first to 
the island of Euboea, where was the hated town of Eretria, which, 
in the sedition of the Asiatic Greeks, had conspired with the Athe- 
nians. It was taken by storm, pillaged, and burned down, and the • 
inhabitants were carried off" as slaves to the interior of the Persian 
empire. The enemy overrun Attica. Athens called on the Grecian 
States for help, but the Spartans Hngered because superstition did 
not allow them to set out before full-moon, and the other States 
refused aid entirely. Platasse, only, sent one thousand men. 
Athens armed nine thousand citizens and the slaves. According to 
the advice of Miltiades it was resolved to attack the enemy in 
open battle. The other nine generals also offered him their right of 
command, in which they succeeded each other in regular rotation 
day by day. One of these generals was Aristides. The Athenians 
were encamped on the plain of Marathon, opposite the enemies. 
Though much inferior to them in numbers, they were well drilled 
in arms, and led by excellent chiefs. They were inspired with love 
of their country and of liberty, and glowing with hate against the ser- 
vants of the despot. On the other hand, the Persians were forced 
to fight in a foreign country, without courage and experience in 
war. Miltiades put his army at the foot of the mountains in battle 
array ; he distributed his main forces on both wings, and the slaves 
in the center. Then he gave the signal for the attack (490 B. C.) 
The Greeks, according to his order, rapidly ran towards the enemy. 
Their impetuosity terrified the latter ; they broke through the two 
wings of the Persians, and then attacked the main corps, which had 
already compelled the slaves to yield, and put the enemy to flight. 
The retreating Persians were pursued and harassed until they 
reached their ships, seven of which were burned. Among the 
killed was Plippias ; his hope to see Athens in the fetters of bond- 
age was now frustrated. The whole Persian camp, with all its treas- 

What forces did he muster in the second campaign ? What was the fate of 
Eretria ? Why did the Spartans not support the Athenians ? Who alone sup- 
ported Athens? Who was their general? Describe the battle at Marathon. 
How did Miltiades distribute his forces ? What of the slaves ? 



33 

ures, became the spoil of the victors. Never was the joy over a 
victory greater. While the victorious army pursued the Persians, a 
courier, covered with blood and dust, hurried to Athens, crying to 
the citizens, " Rejoice, we have gained the victory ! " and fell down 
lifeless. The Persians then endeavored to surprise Athens, but Mil- 
tiades got the start of them, and already stood in arms before the 
city when they approached it. Frightened, they hastened back to 
Asia in their ships. The day after the battle the Spartans arrived, 
looked over the .battle-field, the conquered spoils, and returned, 
ashamed, to their homes. The Athenians buried their dead fellow- 
citizens in the most solemn manner, and erected beautiful monuments 
over their graves. They especially honored Miltiades, the hero of 
the day. The whole people received their savior with shouts of 
joy, and his glory was rendered immortal in a large, skillfully- wrought 
painting, which, in several divisions, represented the course of the 
battle. For a long time the Athenians celebrated the glorious day 
with solemn processions and sacrifices. Later, they engaged Phi- 
dias to sculpture, from that marble block of the enemies, a statue 
of the goddess Nemesis, the avenger of human insolence, and 
raised it on the field of battle. 

Soon after the battle, Miltiades learned of the ingratitude of his 
fellow-citizens. He had asked a fleet to chastise the islands which 
had betrayed the common cause. His attack on the island of Paros 
failed. He returned wounded, and was accused of having been 
bribed by Darius. His brother defended him at court, where, 
though acquitted from the capital charge, he was condemned to pay 
the expenses the armament of the fleet had caused. As he was un- 
able to immediately pay the necessary sum, he was thrown into 
prison, where he, as some report, died of the wounds he had re- 
ceived at Paros. 

Aristides, who had materially contributed to the victory of Mar- 
athon, was also rewarded with ingratitude. By his stern integrity 
in judicial decisions, he had acquired high authority, and the sur- 
name of the "Just." The young Themistocles, jealous of his pub- 
lic power, opposed him, and succeeded, by ostracism, in having him 
banished for ten years. During the voting (as they say), an igno- 

What of the courier who carried the news of the victory to Athens ? How 
did the Persians succeed when they attempted to surprise Athens ? When 
did the Spartans arrive ? How did the Athenians honor their fallen citizens 
and Miltiades ? What of Phidias ? How did the Athenians treat Miltiades, 
when his attack on the island of Paros failed ? 

(3) 



34 

rant man who did not know how to write, brought his shell to Aris- 
tides, whom he did not know, requesting that he would write the 
name of Aristides upon it. " Why, what harm has Aristides ever 
done you?" said he. "No harm at all," answered the citizen; 
"but I cannot bear to hear him continually called the 'Just.'" 
Aristides smiled, and taking the shell, wrote his name on it. He 
submitted calmly to the unjust decree of the people, saying ; " I 
pray the gods not to permit that the Athenians ever have reason to 
remember me." His love of justice, among numerous instances, 
may be illustrated by the following : Once, in a lawsuit, the plaint- 
iff reminded him of the injury Aristides himself had suffered from 
the adversary; but Aristides replied: "Tell me only what wrong 
your adversary has done to yon, for now I am not iny, but your 
judge." 

\ 17. Continued. Battle at Thermopylae. Leonidas. 

Darius could not forget the ignominy he suffered. He com- 
menced new, immense armaments, and after his death his son, 
Xerxes, continued them. He declared that all nations of his great 
monarchy must take part in the war against Greece. Thus it hap- 
pened that the retinue of sutlers, slaves, women and children in- 
cluded, about two miUions of people, took the field. But among 
them were only 10,000 of choice troops. The fleet consisted of 
1,200 galleys of war, besides 3,000 transports and smaller vessels. 

The Grecian States saw the approaching tempest ; nevertheless, 
they were at variance among themselves. Athens and Sparta de- 
sired a general aUiance ; but some held aloof by a warning of the 
oracle ; others, through a fear of the king of the Persians ; some 
even already paid him homage. At this crisis, Themistocles saved 
Greece. While yet a boy, he showed such rare faculties that his 
teachers said that he was destined to become either the blessing or 
the curse of his native town. Instead of being fond of playing, 
like other boys, he delivered extempore speeches, in which he im- 
peached or defended his playmates. Nothing in instruction inter- 
ested him so much as matters which concerned the State. While in 
a merry company at one time he was taunted because he did not 

Why was Aristides called "the Just?" How did he behave towards a 
citizen who wanted him to write his name on a shell ? Give an illustration of 
his justice. ^17. What did Darius recommence? Who continued the arma- 
ments? How large was the army of Xerxes? Who saved Greece? What 
was the occupation of Themistocles in his youth ? 



35 

know how to play the lyre. " Well," replied he, proudly, " I do 
not know how t© sing and play ; still I think I know the art of ren- 
dering a State famous and great." The glory of Miltiades excited 
his ambition so that he admitted to his friends that the trophy of 
that hero did not let him sleep. This man foresaw the war with 
the Persian kings; therefore he had induced the Athenians to build 
betimes a large fleet. Now he reconciled the discordant States, 
and, in the congress of the Greeks, at Corinth, he inspired them for 
vigorous resistance. 

Meanwhile the masses of the hostile army arrived at the Helles- 
pont, with Xerxes himself at their head. A bridge of boats was built 
over the straits by his order, and as a storm destroyed it, a new one 
was constructed. A passage was then effected, which is said to 
have lasted seven days and seven nights. The fleet followed the 
land forces. The enemies were scattered over Thracia and Thes- 
salia, as far as the narrow mountain pass of Thermopylae, the key of 
Greece. Here, where mountains and morasses only permitted a 
narrow passage, Leonidas, king of Sparta, had encamped with 
eight thousand Greeks (for Sparta at that time still had the leader- 
ship of the Grecian states, 480 B. C.) The Grecian fleet was cruis- 
ing in the neighboring ocean. 

The Spartans adorned themselves, as they were accustomed to 
do before a battle, braided their long hair, and performed sportive 
combats. The Persian king, to whom a scout reported the news of 
this occupation, was much astonished. He commanded Leonidas 
to deliver up his arms, who sent him this answer : " Come and take 
them." Xerxes waited four days more in the hope of seeing the 
Greeks retreat of their own accord; finally, on the fifth he com- 
menced an attack. All captured Greeks were to be brought alive in- 
to his presence. The Greeks, in close rows, and covered with great 
shields, stretched their long pikes towards the Persians. All attacks 
failed ; the enemies fought till evening, but finally withdrew with 
great loss. The corps of the ten thousands, called the immortals, 
marched on to their place ; but after a murderous contest, they also 
were forced to yield. The next day there was a new combat, and 
the same result. The hirelings refused to fight longer ; they were 
driven with lashes into the narrows. Xerxes already despaired of 

Who reconciled the discordant Greeks ? What accident destroyed the bridge 
which Xerxes had built over the Hellespont ? Who opposed his march ? And 
where ? What was the pastime of the Spartans before the battle ? Describe 
the battle. 



36 

the possibility of gaining the victory, when a wretch, whose name 
was Ephialtes, betrayed to him the by-path which led over the 
mountains. Forthwith he dispatched the corps of the immortals. 
These found but a feeble resistance on their march, and assailed 
Leonidas in the rear. The latter sent the army of the allies back, 
retaining only his three hundred Spartans ; with these he resolved 
to die. One thousand Thespians and Thebans remained, by their 
own choice, with him. All adorned and armed themselves, and 
cheerfully took their last meal. " The next repast," said Leonidas, 
" we shall take in the nether world." The next morning he ad- 
vanced to the wider part of the valley. His small troop fights with 
the courage of lions. They make dreadful havoc among their 
enemies. Two brothers of Xerxes were slain. After the spears of 
the heroes were shivered to pieces, they still fight with swords. 
Leonidas at their head, is one of the first to fall. A furious combat 
takes place over his corpse. The Persians, who desire to secure it, 
are four times repelled ; at last the Greeks get possession of the dear 
treasure, and hold it till the troop which Ephialtes guides, assails 
them from the rear. The faithless Thebans, too, desert to the ene- 
mies; but the Spartans and Thespians retreat, fighting, to a hill 
where they still defend themselves, till the last man falls. Later, 
the place where the heroes had died for their country was marked 
by the simple epitaph : "Go, passenger, and tell Lacedsemon that 
we died here in obedience to her laws." A lion of stone pointed 
out the spot in the defile where Leonidas had expired. Ephialtes 
did not escape his deserved reward. The Amphictyons offered a 
prize for his head, and when he took to flight he was killed. 

§ 18. Continued. Battle at Salanais. Themistoeles. 

The battle at Thermopylae had caused Xerxes the loss of 20,000 
men; it was small for him, but it raised the enthusiasm of the 
Greeks so much higher. His troops poured down upon Hellas 
and laid it waste by fire and sword. The people of the Pelopon- 
nesus abandoned Athens and the other Greeks to their fate, and 
intrenched themselves behind the isthmus of Corinth. In this for- 
lorn condition the Athenians consulted the oracle of Delphi ; they 

Who betrayed them ? In what manner ? How did Leonidas then dispose 
of his troops ? Give an account of the last contest. What epitaph marked the 
place of the battle ? How did Ephialtes perish? f iS. How did the States of 
Peloponnesus endeavor to save themselves? What answer did the oracle of 
Delphi give to the Atheiiians ? 



37 

received the ambiguous answer that Athens must seek shelter 
behind wooden walls. Themistocles, who had caused the priestess 
to dictate this reply of the oracle, persuaded his fellow-citizens that 
by the wooden walls their ships were understood. At his advice, 
therefore, they left the city, and gave it up with their goods to the 
enemies. All men who were able to bear arms, betook themselves 
to the ships ; the old men, women and children took refuge in the 
neighboring islands. Xerxes pillaged and burned the empty town. 

The Grecian fleet, which meanwhile had gloriously fought at 
Artemisium (on the northern end of Euboea), and then had sailed 
to the straits of Salamis (opposite Athens), desired to depart 
from this place now in order to defend the Peloponnesus, Themis- 
tocles explained how unwise this plan was, and advised the Greeks 
to remain. In the heat of the dispute which ensued between the 
commanders, Eurybiades, commander-in-chief, lifted his cane 
against him ; but Themistocles cried : " No matter, strike ; but hear 
me! " When he threatened that the Athenians, whose ships com- 
posed nearly half the fleet, would leave it, and expose the allies to 
destruction, his advice finally was accepted. But, as they under- 
stood that the Persian fleet was approaching, this resolution would 
have been disregarded if he had not used a stratagem, viz., he dis- 
closed to Xerxes the design of the Greeks to leave the bay, and 
advised him to surround them in the night, because he could in this 
manner easily vanquish them. The king, consenting, was thus en- 
snared. Xerxes enclosed the bay and immediately made the neces- 
sary preparations for the battle. Aristides, who lived exiled in 
^gina, first observed the movement of the enemies. He forgot all 
of his personal enmity, and, at the risk of his life, hastened through 
the hostile ships to Themistocles, reported to him what he had seen, 
and offered to serve under his orders. The proposal was readily 
accepted. 

At daybreak, Xerxes gave the signal for the battle; it began. 
Themistocles made a courageous attack with the fleet of the Athe- 
nians. Only a few of the clumsy Persian ships could fight together 
in the narrow bay. The wind, which had risen during the night, 
dashed them against one another, or drove them against rocks and 
cliffs, where they foundered. The Grecian ships entered between 

What was the result of it ? Where did the Persian fleet sail to ? What was 
the desire of the allies now ? By what means did Themistocles compel them to 
remain and to engage in battle ? What of Aristides ? Give an account of the 
battle at Salamis. Why was the Persian fleet defeated ? 



38 

them from all sides, and sank them or made them useless for com- 
bat. Confusion and disorder spread among the enemies, and in 
the midst of the combat the Asiatic Greeks, too, deserted to their 
brothers. The Grecian fleet, though only composed of 380 sails, 
gained a complete victory (480 B. C.) Xerxes, confounded by the 
defeat of his fleet, ordered it to set out immediately for the Helles- 
pont, and followed it with the larger portion of the land forces, 
which, on their retreat, were still more reduced by disease and want 
of provisions. Only Mardonius, with 300,000 men, remained in 
Thessalia. 

Greece acknowledged that it owed its safety chiefly to Themis- 
tocles. For that reason the Spartans carried him in triumph into 
their capital, adorned him with an olive-branch, presented to him the 
finest chariot they possessed, and sent the royal body-guard to 
escort him as far as their boundaries. As the Olympian games 
were celebrated soon after, all who were present rose before him, 
and he was the subject of such general admiration, on account of 
his dignified appearance, that the people entirely forgot the com- 
bats. Themistocles declared this day to have been the most grate- 
ful of his life. 

§ 19. Concluded. Battle at Plataeae. Pausanias. Aris- 
tides. Cimon. 

The returning spring of 479 B. C. called the Greeks to the last 
combat against the Persians. First, Mardonius endeavored to in- 
duce the Athenians to desert the allies, promising, in the .name of 
his king, to enlarge their territory considerably, if they would enter 
into a confederation with him. But all artifices of Mardonius were 
baffled by the faithfulness of Aristides, who, after his glorious con- 
duct at Salamis, had been recalled, and, at that time, was first 
Archon. The Athenians, upon his advice, answered that they 
would fight the Persian king as long as the sun moved in its accus- 
tomed course. They promulgated the direst imprecations against 
whoever should make a proposition to unite with the Persians. 

When Mardonius saw that his proposals were rejected, he in- 
vaded the territory of the Athenians and laid it waste. Shamefully 
forsaken by the Spartans, they were obhged again to flee from their 
native city. Hoping that they had become less obstinate by their 

What of the Asiatic Greeks ? How was Themistocles recompensed ? 
^ 19. Who baffled the artifices of Mardonius ? How did Mardonius endeavor 
to make the Athenians less obstinate ? 



39 

distress, Mardonius again offered them the same conditions of 
peace, but they were refused with the same stern resolution as be- 
fore. A senator who moved to accept them was stoned by the 
furious people. Meanwhile the Spartans built a rampart on the 
isthmus of Corinth. At last they became persuaded of the folly of 
this enterprise, and sent auxiliary troops. The aUies, mustering 
100,000 men, now marched to Boeotia, in the environs of Platse^. 
Pausanias had the chief command ; Aristides was at the head of the 
Athenians. Much time, however, passed away before the attack 
actually took place. At length, as the Greeks, from want of pro- 
visions, left their encampment, and marched towards Plataeae, Mar- 
donius, taking their retreat for flight, set out and pursued them at 
the head of his cavalry; the remainder of the army followed in 
disorder, glad to have a chance to vanquish their enemies without 
striking a blow. A terrible conflict, however, soon ensued. As the 
Persians were three times as numerous as the Greeks, and fought 
valiantly, it was for a long time a drawn battle. Bvit when Mardo- 
nius fell, struck by the spear of a Spartan, his corps gave way in 
fright ; the rest soon also broke in the confusion, and the flight 
became general. The Persians retreated to their fortified encamp- 
ment, but the victors also attacked them there, scaled the wooden 
walls, and cut down almost all enemies. They captured an 
immense amount of spoils. 

On the same day of the victory of Platsese, the Greeks engaged 
and burned the Persian fleet at the promontory of Mycale, near 
Ephesus ; after this, the lonians declared themselves free, and joined 
the aUiance of the European Greeks. Athens was reconstructed 
and made more beautiful than it was before, and the city and har- 
bor, under the direction of Themistocles, enclosed within a strong 
wall. The Spartans in vain opposed its construction, pretending 
that, in case of a new attack, the Persians would be provided with 
a new stronghold. The Athenians, afraid of the resistance of their 
rivals, had recourse to an artifice^ upon the advice of Themistocles ; 
namely, they promised soon to send embassadors to Sparta, who 
would impart full information concerning this affair. Meantime all, 
even women, children and slaves, continued building the walls, and 
Themistocles went himself to Sparta, but there retarded the desired 

Who were the Grecian commanders in the battle at Platseae ? Give a de- 
scription of it. What of Mardonius ? Of the Persian camp ? What other 
action took place at Mycale on the same day? Who opposed the construction of 
the walls of Athens ? By what artifice did Themistocles outwit the Spartans ? 



40 

explanation, under the pretext that he must wait for the arrival of 
his colleagues. As the Spartans complained that the construction 
of the walls was not discontinued, he denied the fact, and requested 
them to send embassadors to Athens to ascertain. They did so ; 
but, according to the directions of Themistocles, the Athenians 
detained the deputies until the walls were finished ; then he declared 
to the Spartans that his townsmen had enclosed their city with 
walls, because it certainly was their right to do so, and because it 
was both to their own advantage and for the welfare of all alHes. 
As the Spartans saw that they were outwitted, they liberated the 
embassadors of Athens, whereupon the latter also permitted the 
Spartan embassadors to return home. 

The Grecians continued the war against the Persians, in order to 
also liberate their colonies from their dominion. Pausanias con- 
ducted himself with such revolting haughtiness towards the other 
allies that they would no longer serve under his command, and 
elected Aristides their commander-in-chief, because he was honest 
and commanded universal respect (447 B.' C.) In this manner 
Sparta lost the prerogative of the chief command in war, which now 
passed to the Athenians. After the death of Aristides the brave 
Cimon, son of Miltiades, became general-in-chief ot the federal 
troops. He vanquished the Persians several times. 

Pausanias and Themistocles, in later time, stained the glory they 
had gained in the Persian war. The former, in a secret letter to 
Xerxes, promised to effect the subjugation of Greece, on condition 
of his receiving his daughter in marriage ; besides, he lived in such 
a pompous manner that it caused the suspicion of treason, which was 
soon proved. The ephori recalled the traitor from the army, and 
attempted to seize him ; but he succeeded in escaping to the Tem- 
ple of Minerva, which was regarded as a sacred asylum, the entrance 
of which they closed up, and he was left to perish by hunger. It 
is said that even his aged mother assisted in carrying stones for this 
purpose. Themistocles also was accused of being an accomplice 
of Pausanias. He at that time Hved in Argos, whither the Athe- 
nians, influenced by his personal enemies and the Spartans, had 
banished him. They sent officers there to arrest him, but he escaped, 
amidst many dangers, to Asia, where he was graciously received by 
the king of the Persians. He promised to aid him in subjugating 

Who became commander-in-chief instead of Pausanias ? Who after Aris- 
tides ? How did Pausanias stain the glory he had gained ? What was his end ? 
What of his mether ? How did Themistocles behave in later time ? 



41 

Greece. The king made him many presents, and, for his support, 
assigned him the revenues of three cities. It is also reported that 
Themistocles, perceiving that it was impossible to fulfill the given 
promise, finally committed suicide. 

Aristides enjoyed the confidence of his fellow-citizens and even 
of all confederates, to the end of his Hfe. Knowing his strict hon- 
esty, which had been oftentimes tried, they committed to him the 
superintendence of the federal treasury, which he administered with 
the greatest faithfulness, and in so doing, remained poor himself. 
One of his relatives, the richest citizen in Athens, being reproached 
for allowing Aristides and his family to pine in poverty, vindicated 
himself by asserting that he often, but in vain, offered him large 
sums of money, and appealed to the testimony of Aristides himself. 
Aristides died in honorable poverty, not leaving enough to even pay 
the expenses of his burial. The State paid them, and provided also 
for his family. 

Cimon, like the other powerful Athenians, was also banished, 
because his fellow-citizens were afraid of his great authority ; but 
after the fifth year he was permitted to return. He gained the 
admiration and affection of the Athenians, not only in war, but also 
in peace. He put the harbor into closer connection with the city 
by the magnificent long walls, which were constructed at his sugges- 
tion. He allowed everyone to eat of the fruits of his gardens, 
which were left without guardians or enclosures. If he went out, 
he was always followed by servants, in order to be able to give to the 
needy. He often offered his upper garment to the poorly clothed 
and indigent. He assisted every needy person with his wealth and 
oifered them protection ; he enriched many, and buried others at 
his expense. His demise was generally mourned. 

2, PKOGEESSIVE DECAY OF THE GEECIAN STlTES-430-146 B, C. 



§ 20. Peloponnesian War. Pericles. Alcibiades. 

Soon after the Persian wars, the domestic quarrels of the Grecian 
States began,.in which they inflicted upon each other deeper wounds 
than the Persians had ever done. Sparta and Athens, especially, 
hated each other bitterly. Athens, by its merits, had become the 

What did the confederates commit to Aristides on account of his honesty ? 
Illustrate, by an example, how he bore poverty. Who provided for his burial 
and his family? Give an account of Cimon' s character, especially of his munifi- 
cence. § 20. What was the cause of the Peloponnesian war ? 



42 . 

head of the confederation. In addition to this Pericles had trans- 
formed it, not only by making it the principal seat of all the arts 
and sciences, but also by making it more powerful than it ever was 
before, by subjecting to it many cities and islands. In a word, he 
had elevated it to the principal State of Greece. Athens now in- 
sisted upon ruling the allies, severely punished their revolts, and 
declared that the stronger had a right to govern the weaker; in 
other words, that 20,000 Athenians (for that was the number of 
citizens of Athens, out of its 180,000 inhabitants) had the right to 
govern fifteen millions of Greeks. Its sway over the smaller States 
was especially oppressive. This was the reason why the Pelopon- 
nesian war finally broke out, which devastated Greece for twenty- 
seven years .,(437-404 B. C.) The two rivals led the contending 
parties, and summoned all their allies to the combat. At the same 
time it was a struggle of the constitutions ; most of the aristocratic 
States joined the Spartans and most of the democratic the Athenians. 

The Athenians, having assisted the inhabitants of Corcyra against 
the Corinthians, were accused by the latter of having thereby vio- 
lated the treaty of the confederated States of Peloponnesus, and an 
appeal to arms was immediately resolved on. Pericles commanded 
the Athenians and their allies. In the first years of the war both 
parties mutually ravaged their territories. Attica was visited by a 
dreadful plague (430 B. C.), which depopulated the town and 
country. The Athenians accused Pericles, who had persuaded 
them to wage war, to be the originator of all their misfortunes, 
removed him from the command, and inflicted a fine upon him ; 
they soon reinstated him, however, into all his offices, but shortly 
afterwards he fell a victim to the plague. 

The terrors of civil war continued raging. The inhabitants of 
Potidaea, in Thracia, bravely maintained the siege of the Athenians, 
and at last preferred to eat human flesh rather than surrender. 
Sparta was so debased that it had recourse, for the sake of ven- 
geance, to the friendship of the Persian king, and solicited his suc- 
cor. In order to obstruct all methods of reconciliation, both repub- 
lics caused their embassadors to be mutually intercepted on the 
way, and killed. The Athenians killed 1,000 captives of Mytilene 

What States were at the head of the two contending parties ? Which was 
the leader of the democratic States ? Which of the aristocratic ? How many 
years did the war last ? Who was the commander of the Athenians ? What 
calamity befell Attica? What of Potidsea? From whom did the Spartans 
solicit succor? 



43 

(in Lesbos). The Spartans destroyed Platseae, killed the men, and 
enslaved the women and children. They enticed 2,000 Helots to 
Sparta under the pretense of making them free, and then, being 
afraid of their power, murdered them. After some years, the con- 
tending parties concluded a treaty of peace (421 B. C), called the 
peace of Nicias ; but it did not last long. 

As some of the cities of Sicily implored the aid of Athens against 
Syracuse, Alcibiades, the most talented and wealthiest, but also the 
most inconsiderate and luxurious citizen of Athens, persuaded the 
credulous people to fit out a large fleet, stimulating them with the 
hope that they certainly would conquer not only Syracuse and 
Sicily, but also lower Italy, Carthage, and finally the Peloponnesus. 
Scarcely had he landed in Sicily (415 B. C), when he was ordered 
to return to defend himself against the accusation of irreligious pro- 
fanation, brought about as follows : Not long before his departure 
he had, at night, with certain wanton companions, upset and muti- 
lated the statues of Mercury, called Hermes. This, at least, was 
the accusation brought against him by his enemies. He did not 
answer in law, but left the army secretly, and learning that the sen- 
tence of death had beeii passed upon him, went over to the Spar- 
tans. The revellef, with admirable facility, submitted to their severe 
way of living, and soon gained such a power over their minds that 
he could move them to support the Syracusans against Athens. 
The army of the Athenians perished miserably in Sicily. As 
Alcibiades offended one of the Spartan kings, the government 
ordered him to be killed. He was warned, and fled to the Persians. 

The Athenians, depressed by the disasters which had befallen 
them since the condemnation of Alcibiades, longed for the absent 
one ; he was recalled, and again obtained the chief command. He 
vanquished the Spartans, and returned triumphantly to Athens ; the 
whole country hailed him -v^ith exultation. He fought against the 
Spartans during some years with the greatest success (410-408 
B. C.) ; but while he forcibly levied auxiliaries in Ionia, his substi- 
tute, though positively forbidden to do so, engaged in a battle, and 
lost it. The Athenians now dismissed him, whom they just had 
idolized, the second time, electing ten generals instead. He went 

What city did they destroy ? What atrocious action did the Athenians com- 
mit in Mytilene ? How did the Spartans treat the Helots ? What pernicious 
advice did Alcibiades give to the Athenians ? Why did he leave Sicily and go 
to Sparta ? Why did the Athenians recall him ? And why again dismiss him ? 
What battle did they lose? 



44 

to Thracia, bought some ships, conquered a small territory for him- 
self, and lived under Persian protection. To ^gos-Potamos (river 
of the goat) all the troops of the Athenians also moved. Alci- 
biades_ warned the careless commanders against the enemies in vain. 
They scornfully rejected his counsel. One evening, as their troops 
were ashore, straggling and dispersed, Lysander, aided by the Per- 
sians, surprised them, and completely vanquished both the fleet and 
the land forces. Two hundred ships were captured and three 
thousand men taken prisoners, and a large number killed. He then 
besieged Athens (404 B. C), compelled the city to surrender, 
demolished, to the sound of flutes and national music, its magnifi- 
cent walls and fortifications, and burned all their galleys, except 
twelve. In the future, Athens was only to keep twelve galleys, and 
follow Sparta in every war. The democratic constitution was 
abolished, and an aristocratic government established. As a senate 
of thirty members was instituted in Sparta, thirty citizens, siding 
with the Spartans, also obtained the highest power in Athens. The 
government of these men, notorious under the name of the thirty 
tyrants, was terrible. Banishments, rapine and executions were the 
order of the day. Alcibiades, also, was condemned to die. Those 
who were sent to kill him, not daring to enter his house, surrounded 
it and set it on fire. Alcibiades having quitted it, went headlong 
through their arms and the flames, sword in hand ; the cowards 
fled, and killed him at a distance, showering their arrows upon him. 
At last, Thrasybulus, secretly supported by Thebes, undertook 
the deliverance of his country (403 B. C.) Strengthened by many 
fugitives, he invaded Attica, took the harbor (Piraeus) by force, and 
beat the army of tyrants. They Avere compelled to leave the city, 
and, as they endeavored to maintain their power, they were cap- 
tured and killed. The people gave to its liberator a crown of 
honor, wreathed with two olive-twigs, ^nd the modest hero was sat- 
isfied with the small reward. The free constitution was re-estab- 
lished, and later the walls of the city were rebuilt by Conon. But 
Athens nevermore attained its former splendor and glory. 

§ 21. Socrates. 

Soon after the overthrow of the tyrants, followed the execution 
of the noble-minded Socrates, in Athens. He was first a sculptor, 

What ruinous effects did their defeat have ? Who then governed in Athens ? 
How did the thirty tyrants govern in Athens ? What of Thrasybulus ? How did 
Alcibiades end his life ? 



45 

but later left this art and became a teacher of the people, in the 
broadest and noblest signification of the word. He devoted him- 
self to the vocation of encouraging both citizens and strangers to 
do good; of recommending the practice of virtue and justice, and 
of vigorously opposing the moral corruption then prevaiHng in 
Athens. He neglected his own interests for the sake of this calhng, 
being always poor ; he was even determined to die for it, for he 
believed that by so doing he could be most useful to his fellow- 
citizens. Therefore, as the thirty tyrants forbade him to instruct the 
youth, he did not obey them, declaring to his judges that»he would 
rather die than live longer on the condition that he should not 
teach. There was then in Athens a numerous class of scholars 
who principally professed rhetoric, but who, for money, taught the 
defense of every cause, even the meanest one, and declared the 
principles of morality and justice to be merely superstition. These 
men were called sophists. He attacked them openly, often puzzled 
them by perplexing questions, and, by the use of irony, made 
them ashamed of themselves. 

But the occupation he liked best was to teach and educate tal- 
ented young men. The culture of their minds was the chief object 
to him. He once met the young Xenophon in a narrow thor- 
oughfare. He stopped him with his staff, asking : " Tell me, if 
you please, where flour is sold." The youth answered: "In the 
market." "And oil ? " " Also there." " But in what place do 
men learn virtue ? " The young man was silent. Socrates cried : 
" Follow me, and I will show you." And Xenophon became his 
pupil. Socrates taught strict obedience to parents and the laws ; he 
disclaimed against the principle of retaliation, as evil for evil, etc. 
He called it foolish to pray for riches. He said : " First take care 
of virtue; for real happiness issues from it of itself." 

His method of teaching was peculiar, in this, that he endeav- 
ored to excite reflection, and to spread enlightenment by proper 
questions. He neither took pay nor presents from his scholars. 
He saved the life of two of them (Xenophon and Alcibiades), in 
battle. He himself was released by the latter, while in danger of 
his own hfe, from the throng of enemies who had surrounded him. 

§21. What vocation did Socrates follow firstj what did he follow later ? What 
did he teach his fellow-citizens ? Was he selfish in teaching ? What did he de- 
clare to the thirty tyrants ? How did he deal with the sophists ? Mention his 
conversation with Xenophon ? What was his method of teaching ? Whose 
lives did he save ? Who saved him ?' 



46 

His instruction was zealously sought for. Euclides sometimes trav- 
eled twenty miles, from Megara, to enjoy it at least one day ; and 
when the Megarians, during the war, were forbidden to set foot into 
Attica upon pain of death, he, nevertheless, in the disguise of a 
woman, risked it and went to him. 

Socrates confirmed his doctrines by his own example ; in fact, 
he believed that this was the main point in virtue. He lived in a 
very plain and unostentatious manner. To his moderation in living 
he owed it that he Avas always in good health, even while the plague ' 
was raging in Athens. He could pass, without any ill effects, a 
sleepless night, and be able the next day to Avrestle as vigorously, 
to teach as ingeniously, and entertain, as at other times. He was 
always cheerful and in good humor, and patiently bore offenses. 
He was free-spoken against the thirty tyrants. When they com- 
manded him to bring a man to them whom they wanted to kill, he 
did not obey them. Thus he wrought great benefit in his vocation 
during forty years. The most illustrious men of Greece proceeded 
from his school. 

He could not help, by his method of teaching, of making a 
number of people his enemies. The sophists and some ambitious 
politicians hated him bitterly. His adversaries at first attempted to 
ridicule him publicly, but as he did not care for that, they engaged 
Melitus, a wretched poet, to appear as plaintiff before the people. 
He represented Socrates to be an enemy of hberty, who daily in- 
veighed against the democratic form of government, and especially 
thought that it was nonsense to bestow the highest offices by lot. 
He added that Alcibiades was an enemy of the repubhc, and 
Critias and Theramenes (both also pupils of Socrates), had been at 
the head of the thirty tyrants, and concluded that it thereby was 
proved that Socrates corrupted the youth. Besides, he accused 
him of introducing new divinities. To be sure, Socrates had de- 
clared himself several times against superstitious customs ; the phil- 
osophers generally were reproached for not believing in the divin- 
ities of the country. Both offenses — corruption of youth, and 
introduction of new gods — were capital crimes. Other plaintiffs 
pleaded in the same way as Melitus. 

What of the zeal of Euclides to hear him? Why did he enjoy good health ? 
What was his humor ? When did he disobey the tyrants of Athens ? How 
long was he teaching ? Had he eminent scholars ? How did his adversaries 
try to ruin him ? What of Melitus ? 



47 

Socrates defended himself courageously and calmly, proving his 
innocence. The fathers and older brothers of his scholars also tes- 
tified in his favor ; nevertheless, he was declared guilty. He was 
allowed to choose one of three penalties — fine, imprisonment or 
banishment. He protested against all, declaring that he thought he 
merited the same as other men who had deserved well of the coun- 
try : to be maintained for the rest of his life at the expense of the 
repubhc, in the Prytaneum. This liberal sentiment provoked his 
judges so that, at the second voting, they passed the sentence of 
death upon him (399 B. C.) He said to them : " I am going to 
suffer death by your order, to which nature condemned me from 
the first moment of my birth ; but my accusers will soon suffer from 
infamy by the decrees of truth." 

By chance he was obliged to remain in prison thirty days, till his 
execution. His scholars and friends desired to liberate him by brib- 
ing the jailor. All preparations for his flight were made; but he 
rejected the offer, for such an action seemed to him to be against 
the laws, and beneath his honor. In prison he conversed every day 
with them on the hoHest truths of philosophy. The last day they 
came early in the morning; his wife also arrived; she was sobbing 
and setting up great cries. Socrates desired them to take her away. 
One of his friends expressed his grief at his having to die innocent. 
" What ! " replied he, with a smile, " would you have me rather die 
guilty ? " Towards evening the jailor entered to inform him that 
the time for drinking the hemlock was come ; he was so affected 
with sorrow that he turned his back and began to weep. The fatal 
cup was brought. Socrates asked what was necessary for him to 
do. " Nothing more," replied the servant, " than, as soon as you 
• have drank it, to walk about till you find your legs grow weary, 
and afterwards lie down upon your bed." He took up the cup 
with serenity, without any emotion or change in his color or coun- 
tenance, and drank the whole draught. Till then his friends re- 
frained from tears ; but after he had drank the potion, they could 

Of what two crimes did he accuse him ? "Who defended him ? What was 
the verdict of his judges ? What reply did he make to them ? What was their 
final sentence ? What did he answer then ? Who attempted to liberate him ? 
Why did he reject the oflfer ? On what topics did he converse with his scholars 
in prison ? What of his wife ? Relate the particulars of his death. What 
directions did the jailor give him ? 



48 • • ■ 

no longer master themselves, but began to cry aloud, wringing their 
hands. He consoled them, saying : " Be at ease ; it was to escape 
this, I sent away the women." In the meantime, he kept on walk- 
ing to and fro ; and when he found his legs grow weary, he laid 
down upon his bed, as he had been directed to do, and covered his 
face. The poison then operated more and more. When he found 
it began to gain upon his heart, he uncovered his face, and, soon 
after, breathed his last. Such was the end of Socrates, according 
to the declaration of the oracle of Delphi, the wisest man of the 
Greeks, and, in Xenophon's opinion, the most virtuous and hap- 
piest of men. 

§ 22. Theban War. Epaminondas and Pelopidas. 
Battles at Leuctrae and Mantinea. 

After the conquest of Athens, Sparta was again at the head of 
the Grecian government; but the citizens were no more animated 
by the principles of Lycurgus. To the severity and rudeness of the 
ancient Spartans, they added greediness and bribery, and severely 
oppressed the other States. By uniting the pillaged and extorted 
treasures, they became luxurious and immoral. The other Grecians, 
however, obeyed them with servile submission, and even erected al- 
tars to the tyrant Lysander. At last they again took courage, and 
made an alliance against Sparta, not only among themselves, but also 
with the Persians. The second civil war commenced. The allies, 
assisted by the Persian fleet, which the Athenian, Conon, com-' 
manded (394 B. C.), were victorious at sea ; but the Spartans, led 
by their king, Agesilaus, prevailed on land. After that, Artaxerxes 
dictated to free Greece the peace, by virtue of which the Asiatic 
Grecians again had to submit to the Persian yoke. 

The war was soon recommenced, because Sparta ruled with 
more tyrannical sway than ever before. A Spartan army set out on 
its march to Macedonia (382 B. C.) When passing through Boeo- 
tia, it came close to Thebes. As a party contest was just prevailing 
here, some malcontent noblemen suggested to the Spartan general 



Describe his last moments. What did the oracle and Xenophon declare him 
to be? §22. What was the character of the Spartans after the conquest of 
Athens? Mention some particulars of the second civil war. How was the 
citadel of Thebes captured by the Spartans ? 



49 

the scheme of takmg possession of the citadel, in order that they 
and their partisans could, under Sp.artan protection, act much more 
as they pleased. The proposal was accepted, and the Spartans 
occupied the citadel during the prevalence of peace. Four hun- 
dred Thebans escaped to Athens. The people endured the oppres- 
sion of the Spartans and of their Theban partisans for four years ; 
then several fugitives, encouraged by Pelopidas, resolved to put an end 
to it. The time determined upon to execute the enterprise, was at 
a festival. The majority of the exiles should stop at the frontier, 
but some were to hasten before to Thebes, in order to first dispatch 
the tyrants. The Thebans, disguised as peasants, and bringing 
hounds and hunting apparel with them, went to the house of a 
conspirator, where they met several associates. Meanwhile the 
tyrants revelled thoughtlessly at a nocturnal banquet. A messenger 
from Athens delivered to one of them a letter which contained a 
detailed account of the whole conspiracy, and asked him to read 
the letter immediately, because it concerned very serious affairs. 
" Serious affairs to-morrow ! " repHed the drunken despot, and put 
the letter under his pillow. Soon after Pelopidas and the conspira- 
tors arrived in the disguise of dancing-girls, drew their poniards, 
and killed them all. Next morning the rest of the exiles arrived 
from Attica, joined them, and the people, encouraged by Epamin- 
ondas, besieged the citadel. The Spartan garrison was obliged to 
surrender before relief came from Sparta. Agesilaus now led a 
great army, supported by all the confederates, -against the Thebans, 
but did not gain a decisive advantage over their commander, Pelop- 
idas. Athens aided Thebes with its naval forces, and vanquished 
the combined fleet of the enemies (376 B. C.) A general congress 
met soon thereafter to make peace. The principal condition was, 
that all States should become entirely independent and sovereign. 
Peace was again restored by Persian intervention. Thebes alone 
was excluded, because it would not accord freedom to the Boeotian 
townships unless Sparta also restored the Messenians to liberty. 

Sparta, supported by the other Greeks, assaulted the forsaken foe 
with renewed fury ; at Leuctra, in Boeotia, the Spartans fought with 
25,090 men against 6,000 Thebans (371 B. C.) Epaminondas was the 

How long a time did their government last? Who then delivered the 
Thebans? In which way? In what disguise did the conspirators introduce 
themselves ? What were the effects of the surprise ? What of Agesilaus and 
the general congress ? What did they resolve upon ? Give an account of the 
battle at Leuctra. . 

(4) 



50 

commander of his fellow-citizens ; Pelopidas fought at the head of 
the Sacred Battalion, which was ^composed of three hundred brave 
young men, who had pledged, under oath, to defend each other to 
the last drop of blood. Proud Sparta suffered a complete defeat, 
the heaviest she had ever endured. Epaminondas, whose strategic 
art had conduced most to this victory, declared the joy his parents 
felt over his victory to be his best reward. He then invaded Laco- 
nia, where, according to a Spartan adage, till then a woman never 
had seen the smoke of a hostile camp, alarmed the capital, and 
delivered the Messenians from the dominion of Sparta. Those who 
were dispersed in different regions then returned, and under his 
protection built a new city for themselves. Satisfied to have humil- 
iated Sparta, he returned home. 

Here the victor was about to be punished with death, for the 
following reason : He, Pelopidas, and the other generals, were 
summoned to answer as criminals for having retained their com- 
mand some months beyond the appointed term. He desired to be 
alone held responsible for the crime, and declared himself to be 
prepared to die if the Thebans, in their verdict, would state that 
they executed him because he compelled them to vanquish the 
Lacedaemonians, and thereby saved both themselves and all Greece, ■ 
and also delivered the Messenians. He was immediately acquitted, 
amid universal approbation. 

A quarrel between Mantinea and Tegea, in Arcadia, caused the 
war to recommence.- Thebes declared in favor of the Tegeans; 
Sparta took part with their adversaries, and Athens, being jealous 
of Thebes, joined her. Epaminondas again mvaded Lacedgemonia 
and penetrated into Sparta as far as the public place; there Agesilaus 
saved the city. Epaminondas retired before the superior force of 
the allies ; they followed him, and at Mantinea the decisive battle 
was fought (362 B. C.) Epaminondas was victorious, by his excel- 
lent plan of battle and by his personal valor overpowering, at the 
head of a selected troop, every resistance. But as he advanced too 
boldly, the enemies singled him out as an object of their attack, 
and did not cease till they saw him sink down, hit by a javelin. 
The wounded commander had to be carried off from the field of 
battle. When the physician informed him that he would die as 

What did Epaminondas declare to be his best reward for the victory ? What 
people did he deliver ? How did he defend liis illegal conduct ? Give an ac- 
count of the battle at Mantinea. 



51 

soon as the head of the dart was drawn out of the wound, he de- 
sired that it remain there until he was told that the Thebans were 
victorious; then he cried out: "Well, then, I have lived lono- 
enough." Then he permitted the iron to be drawn out of the 
wound, and expired. 

Thus died Epaminondas, the great general and statesman, whom 
Cicero declared to be the first among all the Greeks. He excelled 
also in the arts and sciences, and was very well informed in music. 
He was, moreover, so devoted to philosophy that, when he was 
young, he preferred the company of his teacher, a serious old man, 
to all other comrades. When he was in society where they dis- 
cussed. State affairs he never left till the conversation was finished. 
He was also a distinguished orator, and it is said he loved truth so 
well that he never told a lie, not even by way of jest. He cheer- 
fully endured poverty, nor did he enrich himself by public offices. 
He did not lay claim to the wealth of his friends for his benefit, 
but in order to support others. A manager of Artaxerxes once 
attempted to bribe him, but Epaminondas said: " It is of no use 
to offer me money; for if that which the king desires is beneficial 
to the Thebans, I will do it for nothing; if not, he has not gold 
and silver enough, for I would not take all the treasures of the 
world in exchange for the love of my country." The embassador 
was obliged to quit Thebes quickly, and to a friend of his who 
had been bribed by the same man, he gave an order to immediately 
return the sum received, threatening, in case he failed to do so, to 
inform the magistrate. He likewise dismissed his shield-bearer 
who had given a captive his liberty for money, saying to him : 
" Since money polluted your hands, you can no more be my com- 
. panion in dangers." A Thessalian prince desired to engage him in 
an unjust alliance, offering him 2,000 pieces of gold. He refused 
the present, although he was then obfiged to borrow from a friend 
the sum necessary to purchase his armorial implements. He never 
sought a place of honor, but if he was entrusted with one he man- 
aged it faithfully, no matter how low it was. When his fellow-citi- 
zens, through envy, did not elect him general, but an ignorant man 
obtained the chief command, by whose incapacity the misfortune 
befell the troops of being surrounded by the enemies, he forgot the 

When did he cause the javelin to be drawn out of the wound ? Who was vic- 
tor ? What does Cicero say of Epaminondas ? In what arts and sciences did he 
excel ? Did he love truth ? How did he endure poverty ? Give examples. Why 
did he dismiss his shield-bearer ? Demonstrate that he was not ambitious. 



52 

injury he had suffered, dehvered the army, and returned it in safe 
condition. He acted thus several times. 

Pelopidas, also victorious, had fallen in a battle two years before 
Epaminondas. Both were faithful friends. After the death of the 
two heroes, Thebes quickly fell back into her former obscurity. 

I 23. Greece Subdued by Macedonia and Rome. Con- 
federacy of Aehaia. 

The domestic weakness of the Grecian States was increasing 
more and more ; they were no longer able to sustain the laws and 
public order among their own citizens. The love of country, 
liberty and glory was waning; sensuality, egotism, and party, strife 
succeeded them. Under these circumstances, Philip of Macedonia 
was enabled to subjugate Greece. In order to attain his purpose 
he created a powerful army, bribed tlie national orators of the 
Greeks, and kept alive the flame of their internal dissensions. 
Finally, actual war again broke out, and thus access to their land 
was opened to him. 

The Phocians had cultivated some fields consecrated to Apollo, 
in Delphi, and therefore the tribunal of the Amphictyons decreed 
their chastisement (356 B. C.) The Phocians were irritated by this 
decree and pillaged the temple ; the Amphictyons rendered their de- 
cision more severe, and compelled Thebes to execute it. The Phocians 
recruited great armies with the stolen treasures ; Sparta and Athens 
aided them ; the war was much protracted, arid waged with great 
violence. It had raged ten years, when the exhausted Thebans 
applied for help to watchful Philip ; he entered Greece through the 
defile of Thermopylae, forced the Phocians to lay down their arms, 
and received their vote in the council of the Amphictyons. He 
kept possession of this important pass. For some years Demos- 
thenes and Phocian hindered him in the accomplishment of his 
objects — the former by fulminating his orations ; the latter by his 
victories in the Cherronesus (Crimea), where Philip wished to make 
conquests. Then, as the Locri also occupied some fields of the 
temple-district and were outlawed, the Amphictyons, misled by 
some bribed orators, called upon Philip to execute the proscription. 
He came (339 B. C.), occupied Elatea, in Phocis, (the pass to 

Who was his friend? §23. What was the condition of the morals of the 
Greeks after the Theban war ? How did Philip gain an entrance into Greece? 
Narrate the war against the Phocians. Against the Locri. What two men re- 
tarded him ? 



53 

Thebes and Athens), and remained in this land during the winter-. 
He had now unmasked himself, and terror-stricken, the Greeks per- 
ceived his design. Demosthenes called the Athenians and Thebans 
to arms, but to no purpose. Philip vanquished them entirely, 
though fighting bravely, at Chaeronea; i,ooo Athenians were killed 
on the battle-field (338 B. C.) He then compelled the Greeks to 
appoint him commander-in-chief against the Persians. His son, 
Alexander, accomplished what death hindered Philip from doing. 
The hberty of the Greeks was lost ! 

After Philip's death the Greeks, without delay, again took up 
arms, but Alexander subdued them without any combat. When he 
was, after that, occupied in another war, and rumor reported 
his death, they revolted again. Alexander quickly arrived 
and conquered and destroyed Thebes ; many inhabitants were slain ; 
30,000, who remained, were sold into slavery; only Pindar's 
descendants obtained a pardon, and his house alone was spared. 
While Alexander was waging war against the Persians, Sparta, which 
alone had not surrendered, invited the Peloponnesians to rebel ; but 
Antipater, Alexander's governor^ suppressed the insurrection in a 
battle (330 B. C.) After the death of Alexander 'the Greeks, en- 
couraged by Demosthenes, rose once more. Antipater vanquished 
them again (322 B. C.), compelled Athens to pay the expenses of 
the war, and demanded the delivery of Demosthenes. The latter 
made his escape, but was pursued and overtaken by Macedonian 
horsemen. As he had no other alternative than either to become the 
prisoner of his vindictive enemy or to take his own life, he chose 
the latter, sucking poison from his pen, and died cherishing the 
same freedom for which he had fought during his whole life. 

About seventy years later the love of liberty again awoke in 
Peloponnesus ; some of the cities in Achaia expelled their tyrants 
and renewed their old alliance. Aratus became its leader (246 B. 
C.) Athens, Corinth, Sicyon, and most of the other cities in Pelop- 
onnesus took part in it. This excited the jealousy of the Spartans, 
who stood aloof from it. A bloody war ensued between them, and 
the aUies, who were too weak to resist them, solicited the assistance 
of the Macedonians (225 B. C.) Thus the confederation suc- 
cumbed to the Macedonian government. 

Where did Philip vanquish the Greeks ? How did Alexander punish them 
when they revolted again ? What of Pindar's descendants ? How did Demos- 
thenes die ? What cities formed the Achaian confederacy ? Why did it suc- 
cumb ? 



54 

Although the Romans, after havuig subjugated Macedonia, de- 
clared Greece a free and independent country (197 B. C), their 
intentions were not honest. They secretly disseminated discord 
among the Greeks, and thus prepared their ruin. One thousand 
patriotic Achsei, accused of being devoted to Macedonian domin- 
ion, were enticed to Rome, where they were forcibly detained. 
Most of them died in captivity. The three hundred who survived 
were not permitted to return to their country for seventeen years 
(151 B. C.) When Rome demanded that Sparta and other cities 
should be separated from the union of Achaia, the later waged war 
against the Spartans; but the Romans succored them, and van- 
quished the Achsei, even boys, old men and slaves, fearless of 
death, perishing for liberty. Consul Mummius conquered Corinth 
and burned the rich city, whereby many splendid works of art were 
destroyed. Such inhabitants as were capable of bearing arms were 
slain, and the women and children sold. The doom of Thebes 
and other cities was the same. The democratic constitutions were 
abolished, and Greece, with the name Achaia, declared a Roman 
province. Only Athens, which was partial to the Romans, was per- 
mitted to keep its constitution. 

I 24. Syracuse. Timoleon. 

While Greece lost her liberty by civil wars, party conflicts also 
raged in Sicily, which the Carthaginians made use of to subjugate 
several cities in this island. The Syracusans, in order to protect 
themselves against their attacks, committed the unrestricted com- 
mand to Dionysius, their fellow-citizen ; but he abused the power 
conferred on him, and turned out a tyrant, concluding peace with 
the Carthaginians. He ruled the Syracusans by terror ; but fear 
and suspicion continually tormented him. He seldom showed 
such meekness as towards the two friends, Damon and Pythias 
(Phyntias), Avhom he first sentenced to death, but afterwards par- 
doned for their uncommon faithfulness. His son, the younger 
Dionysius, who attained the government after him, resembled his 
father in character. The Syracusans, therefore, applied for help to 
Corinth, their native town. There one of the most prominent citi- 

By what means did the Romans prepare the ruin of Greece ? Give an account 
of the struggle of the Achaian league against the Romans. What was the doom 
of Corinth ? Of Thebes ? What city was permitted to keep its constitution ? 
I 24. Did Dionysius the elder protect the Syracusans ? How did his son govern 
them ? What was liis success ? 



55 

zens had usurped the sovereignty, with the assistance of the popu- 
lace ; but his own brother, Timoleon, rose against him. The latter 
repaired with two friends to the tyrant, whose life he had saved in 
battle, and remonstrating with him, asked him to resign the govern- 
ment. When he saw that his advice had no effect, he covered his 
face, and the two companions killed his brother. 

This was the man whom the Corinthians sent with some troops 
to assist their colony (345 B. C.) Timoleon vanquished the four- 
fold stronger enemy, compelled the Carthaginians, who, meanwhile, 
had also entered by force into Syracuse, to evacuate the city, and 
obliged Dionysius to abdicate. The tyrant went to Corinth, spent 
his riches in drinking, and finally was compelled to make a Hving 
by begging. He is also said to have given singing-lessons. Timo- 
leon gave to the city a democratic constitution, caused the fort of 
the tyrant to be destroyed, and induced colonists to setde in the 
depopulated city, to whom he distributed lands. He also expelled 
the despots from other cities of Sicily. When the Carthaginians, 
with 70,000 men, again landed and endeavored to recover the lost 
territory, he met them valiantly and totally defeated them (340 
B. C.) They made another attempt one year after, but did not suc- 
ceed better; they had to make peace. In this manner, through 
Tmioleon, the Syracusans and all Sicily, after a few years, became 
free and happy. , 

Soon after, Timoleon gave up his authority of his own accord, 
and passed the rest of his life as a private person, with his wife and 
children, on an estate the Syracusans had given to him. He was 
generally honored, and the Syracusans always called him to their 
assistance if they had any important affair to deliberate upon. 
When, near the end of his life, he lost his sight, they paid him 
visits, and expressed their gratitude to him for his noble services. 
He complained to nobody of his misfortune, but continued, never- 
theless, to participate in the public deliberations. When he was 
praised with regard to his exploits, he said modestly that he gave 
thanks to the gods for having chosen him tTie instrument for the 
deliverance of Sicily. With tears the Syracusans followed his bier 

What vocation did he follow in Corinth ? How did Timoleon deliver the 
Corinthians from their tyrant ? Where did they send him to ? What enemy 
did he vanquish in Sicily ? What constitution did he give to the Syracusans ? 
Whom did he defeat again ? In what condition did he live for the rest of his 
life ? In what manner did he assist the Syracusans ? How did he bear blind- 
ness ? To whom did he give credit for his exploits ? 



56 

to the grave. They erected a magnificent monument m honor of 
the deceased, and commemorated his memory by annual games. 
His tomb was adorned with colonnades, and was destined to be a 
gymnasium for the youth. Timoleon, in antiquity, passed for the 
highest model of an eminent republican. 

§ 2S. Macedonia. Philip. Alexander the Great, Founder 

of an Universal Monarchy. Battles at Issus, 

Granicus and Arbela. 

Ancient Macedonia, situated north of Greece, had Grecian 
inhabitants, language and customs. To the time of Philip its 
history was of no importance. This prince, in consequence of a 
domestic contest for the throne, which Pelopidas settled, came as a 
hostage to Thebes, where he was educated; he escaped from there, 
and was declared king of Macedonia (361 B. C.) Besides Greece, 
he subdued all the countries from the Danube (Isther) to the Adriatic 
and Black Seas. The rich goldmines he possessed, and the phalanx 
he had trained, made his conquests much easier. He used to say : 
" No fortress is invincible if a mule laden with gold can enter it." 
The phalanx was a square body of soldiers, formed in ranks and files 
close a'nd deep, armed with pikes twenty-one feet long; the single 
files opposed their pikes, like our soldiers their bayonets, to the enemy. 
By dint of it, Philip vanquished the Greeks at Chseronea. At last he 
prepared to attack also the Grecian empire, but his wife conspired to 
have him killed (336 B. C). His son, Alexander, called the Great, on 
account of his conquests, early showed his ambition, once exclaiming 
with tears : " Friends, my father will take all, and leave nothing for 
us to do ! " He undertook a war against the Persians when he was 
only twenty-two years old. Then Darius Codomanus, an imbecile 
king, ruled them. With only 34,000 men Alexander crossed the 
Granicus, a coast -river in Asia Minor, in sight of the hostile army, and 
put it to flight (334 B. C.) He was in danger of his life in this battle, 
as two Persian generals attacked him ; one split his helmet, and the 
other raised his arm to strike his bare head, when his friend Clitus 
hurriedly came to his rescue and with a heavy blow struck the arm 
and sword of the Persian to the ground ; meanwhile, Alexander 

How did the Syracusans honor his death and his memory? §25. Where 
was Philip educated ? By what means were his conquests facilitated ? How 
was the phalanx composed? How did Alexander early show his ambition? 
How many soldiers followed him to Asia ? Where did he gain the first victory ? 
Who saved his life ? 



57 

had pierced the other. He conquered Asia Minor. The Asiatic 
Greeks deserted to him ; he gave them democratic constitutions. 
The next year he a second time vanquished Darius, whose army- 
amounted to about 600,000 men, at Issus (in the defiles of CiHcia),. 
(333 B. C.) The loss of the Persians was estimated to amount to 
100,000 men. Their rich encampment became the prey of the 
victor. The mother and wife and daughters of Darius were also 
taken prisoners. Alexander treated them all with clemency. -Darius 
complained, by writing, of his unjust attack, and offered him his 
friendship. Alexander replied that he considered himself to be the 
sovereign of Asia, and demanded unconditional submission of the 
king. He then passed victoriously through Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine 
and Egypt. All these lands submitted ; Tyrus alone made resist- 
ance. It defended itself most valiantly during seven months. As 
the king at first did not have any ships, he raised a dam in the sea 
in order to get to the city on the island. The besieged exhausted 
all means that courage and despair suggested to them, in order to 
save themselves ; they killed the hostile workmen, burned both the 
towers built for their protection, and the machines of war ; divers,, 
under the water, cut the cables by which the rafts and boats were fast- 
ened ; they erected a new wall around the city behind the old, etc. 
Finally, Alexander himself thought that it was impossible to conquer 
the city, still he tried a last assault. He succeeded, and the fortress 
was taken (332 B. C.) The fate of the inhabitants was horrible ; 
8jOoo men were killed, 30,000 sold as slaves, and the city burned. 

In Egypt, the victor founded the city of Alexandria, which soon 
became the center of universal commerce; in later time, also 
the principal seat of scientific culture. From here he proceeded to 
the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the oasis Siwah, in order to be 
declared the son of the god, and the priest declared him so. 

Darius made new preparations for the combat, but lost the decis- 
ive battle at Arbela, not far frorh Nineveh; almost the fifth part of 
his army, composed of more than half a million of men, perished 
by the swords of the victors. Alexander conquered Babylon, Susa 

Where and when did he again vanquish Darius ? What was the loss of the 
Persians ? Who was captured ? How did Alexander treat the royal prisoners ? 
What did he demand of the king ? What other lands did he conquer ? What 
city resisted him? How long? By what means did the city defend itself? 
What was its fate, when taken ? What city did Alexander found in Egypt ? 
What of Jupiter Ammon ? Where did Darius lose the last battle ? How large 
was his loss ? What cities did Alexander capture ? 



58 

and Persepolis, the capitals of the Persian empire. Darius retired 
into the northern provinces, but the former also followed him there. 
The satrap Bessus killed the fugitive and assumed the royal title, 
but Alexander vanquished him, and ordered his execution. After 
this he also conquered the northern and eastern provinces. 

Flushed with the success of his enterprises, he began to domi- 
neer like a despot. He established the barbarous punishments of 
the Persian kings (mutilations, spearing, kiUing by sunstrokes, etc.) 
At one of the usual carousals, where riot ran high, his flatterers 
praised his exploits and extolled them over those of Hercules. 
Clitus contradicted them, and reminded the king that he had saved 
his life, etc., etc. Incensed, the latter called for arms. Clitus was 
forced out of the hall. He returned, however, and again poured 
invectives against Alexander. Furious, the king snatched a javelin 
from the hand of a bystander and struck Clitus, who fell dead at his 
feet. He also ordered the execution of Parmenio, his best general 
and most faithful servant, and his son — the latter, because he was ac- 
cessory to a conspiracy ; the former, because Alexander was afraid 
of paternal vengeance. Alexander surrounded himself with a showy 
retinue, and demanded divine veneration. He imprisoned CalHs- 
thenes, a philosopher, because he refused to adore him, and permitted 
him to perish miserably. He fell out also with his teacher, Aristoteles. 

Not yet satisfied at having conquered so many lands, he marched 
to India (327 B. C), and advanced victoriously as far as the waters 
of the Indus and the Ganges. Nay, he wanted to march to tjie 
end of the earth, but his soldiers refusing to follow him further, he 
consented to return. He sent the fleet back on the Indian ocean, 
and led the land forces himself through the Persian deserts, where 
they suftered indescribable fatigues (325 B. C.) The soldiers sank 
into the hot sand, and the sun's rays burned them so severely that 
blood was forced from their eyes and mouth. Many became insane 
through pain. They were also in want of water. The march lasted 
sixty days. Most of the soldiers perished miserably. 

When he had returned to Babylon, he endeavored to check the 
disturbances which had spread during his absence. He dispensed 
rigorous justice to the despotic, squandering governors, and quelled 

Who killed Darius ? What changes took place in the behavior of Alexander 
after his success ? How did he treat Clitus, Parmenio and his son, and Callis- 
thenes ? How far did he march into India ? Why not farther ? Give an ac- 
count of his return to Babylon, and how he endeavored to civilize the conquered 
lands. 



59 

the revolts of the troops. He organized the government in the 
conquered lands, and tried to accustom the subdued nations to 
assume Grecian culture and manners. He also considered the im- 
portance of commerce, and provided all means which could advance 
it. He caused colonies to be founded, roads to be built, etc., etc. 
After some years of rest, he contemplated new conquests, but he 
suddenly died (323 B. C.) He tenderly loved his faithful friend, 
Hephsestion, and after his death erected a splendid monument in 
his honor. 

Immediately after Alexander's death such a fierce war com- 
menced among his generals, who contended for the possession of 
his realm, that even the burial of his corpse was forgotten. All the 
members of his family were killed. The bloody contest was decided 
at Ipsus, in Phvygia (301 B. C), and several kingdoms were now 
established, the three most important of which were Macedonia, 
with Greece ; Syria, with most of the Persian lands ; and Egypt. 



ROMAN REPUBLIC-510-30 B. C. 

1. CONTESTS WITH POREIGN ENEMIES AND WITH- THE PATRICIANS- 
510 TO ABOUT 343 B. C. 

§ 26. War Against the Tarquinians. Porsenna. Hora- 
tius Codes. Mueius Scaevola. 

Tarquinius attempted, by cunning and force, to recover the lost 
dominion. First his deputies arrived in Rome, reclaiming his 
domains, but in secret they entered into a plot, in which many 
noble young men and even the sons of Brutus, took part. A 
slave, who secretly watched their deliberations, informed the con- 
suls of them. The criminals were seized and executed. Brutus, 
being consul, was himself the judge of his sons. The two youths, 
in his presence, were tied to a stake, undressed by the lictors (ser- 
vants of the tribunal), flogged with rods, and beheaded. During 
the execution all the bystanders looked at the unhappy father ; he 
was deeply aff"ected ; still he beheld, unmoved, the blood of the 

Who was his friend ? How did he honor him ? How did his generals act 
after his death? Where was their contest decided? Which were the most im- 
portant kingdoms then established? § 26. How long did the contests of the 
Romans against foreign enemies and the patricians last ? How did Tarquinius 
first attempt to recover his lost domains ? How did Brutus behave at the execu'- 
tion of his sons ? 



60 

youths flowing. Tarquinius did not regain his domains, but they 
were distributed among the poor citizens. The slave who had dis- 
covered the plot received his hberty as a reward. 

Porsenna, seeing his ruse baffled, attempted to attain his purpose 
by arms. He found allies in Hetruria. The first battle was obsti- 
nate and remained drawn. Brutus, bravely fighting, met a son of 
Tarquinius, and both stabbed each other. Then Porsenna, the most 
powerful prince in Hetruria, arrived with a strong army at the doors 
of Rome, and gained a victory on the banks of the Tiber. He 
nearly entered the city with the fugitives. But (as some report) 
Horatius Codes, with two fellow-combatants, defended the wooden 
bridge till a part was pulled down ; then the two withdrew and 
he alone remained, defending himself boldly, till it was wholly 
demolished. Thereupon he plunged into the Tiber, and swam 
unhurt to his fellow-citizens. 

Porsenna then besieged the city. A famine was raging in Rome. 
The king expected the surrender every day. Now Mucius, later 
called Scsevola (the left-handed), formed a plan to kill the king. 
Armed with a poniard, which was hidden under his garments, he 
went into the camp of the enemy. The pay was just being dis- 
tributed among the soldiers, and there was much crowding. The 
king was seated near his secretary. Mucius, being afraid to ask 
which of the two was the king, drew his dagger and struck the 
latter, whom he thought to be the king, owing to his gorgeous 
vestments, and killed him. Too late he perceived his mistake. 
He was seized, and the king threatened him with death by fire ; 
but ScEevola, wishing to prove how little he cared for this punish- 
ment, deliberately put his arm into the flames of the altar near 
by and suff"ered it to be slowly burned. The king, dumb-founded 
by admiration, gave him liberty; but Scsevola, seemingly through 
gratitude, made the unfounded statement to him that three hun- 
dred Romans, including himself, had sworn to kill him. Fright- 
ened by this communication, Porsenna made peace. He took as 
security for the fulfillment of its conditions, ten youths and ten 
maidens as hostages. Cloelia, their companion, persuaded the 
other girls to flee. Under the pretext of wanting to bathe they 
escaped and swam, amid a shower of hostile arrows, over the 

How did he lose his life ? What success did Porsenna experience ? What 
is reported of Horatius Codes? What of Mucius Scsevola ? How did he 
punish himself? Why did Porsenna make peace ? What of Clcelia and the 
other hostages ? 



61 

Tiber. The Romans sent the bold maidens back at once. Por- 
senna, admiring their courage, gave Uberty to Cloeha and permitted 
her to ask the release of some of her playmates. She selected the 
youngest, and returned joyfully to her parents. According to 
other reports, Porsenna took possession of the city, and compelled 
the Romans to pay a high price for peace. 

Many Latin cities still took up arms for the expelled Tarqumms. 
The people, who suffered much from the wars, refused to take the 
field. The patricians granted a respite to the poor citizens, who 
were oppressed by debts, and a dictator was appointed, with unlim- 
ited power. The Romans, fighting with the ardor of patriotism, 
vanquished these enemies also (496 B. C.) ; two sons of the king 
were among the killed. A reconciliation afterwards took place 
between the Latins and the Romans, and Tarquinius, being a very 
aged man, and having lost all his sons, did not again attempt to 
reascend the throne, 

^ 27. Domestic Feuds Between the Patricians and 
Plebeians. Appointment of Tribunes. 

Liberty was now firmly secured against its enemies abroad, but 
at home it was diminished by the patricians. These possessed the 
niost riches, and alone made use of the pubhc lands. During the 
frequent campaigns the poor plebeian had to leave his small field 
uncultivated, or had to sell it in order to be able to defray the ex- 
penses of the campaign, as every one was obliged to provide his 
own arms and provisions. After the war he found his field wild, 
and thus with his family fell into oppressive poverty. He was then 
obliged to take recourse to the rich patricians, pay high interest for 
the money they loaned him, and if he could not discharge these 
debts he was imprisoned and forced to sell his land, or even him- 
self and his children, to the creditor. 

These tyrannical acts of the aristocrats caused many disturb- 
ances in the city. As the city again was warring with the neigh- 
boring nations, an old man made his appearance in the market- 
place, dressed in rags, pale and starving, with unkempt beard and 
hair. Crowds of people assembled around him and recognized 
him to be a gallant captain. He related that he had to neglect his 

Give an account of the war of the Romans against the Latins. ? 27. How 
were the plebeians used by the patricians ? Give an example of their ill-will. 
Who made his appearance in the market-place ? What did he relate and show 
to the people ? 



62 

field for the sake of the campaign, and that the enemies had 
burned and plundered all his property. In this way he had run in 
debt and passed into servitude, where he was treated cruelly. Thus 
speaking, he bared his back, which showed traces of the cruel treat- 
ment he had undergone. Then a revolt broke out and raged 
through the city, and the people refused to do military service until 
relief had been obtained. The next year the same spectacle occur- 
red again. The patricians, though promising to the people to lessen 
their burdens, refused, after the war, to fulfill their promise. At last, 
being tired of this tyranny, the people set out to the sacred moun- 
tain, near Rome, intrenched a camp, and elected their own com- 
mander (494 B. C.) Here they also intended to found their own 
town, and forever separate from the haughty patricians. This 
action on the part of the plebeians changed the minds of the patri- 
cians, and they now became milder. They remitted to their debt- 
ors all they owed, released the indebted servants, and granted to 
the people tribunes, whom they were to select from among them- 
selves, in order that their rights might be taken care of. Since 
then the people carried on a regular contest with the patricians 
for the equality of all rights. The tribunes were the indefatigable 
champions of the people in this struggle, leading them from victory 
to victory. First, they brought it about that they were permitted 
to choose also one of the consuls (though only from the patricians), 
(482 B. C.) Then they effected the abolition of the law which 
prohibited the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians (445 B. C.) 
One year after, the first time military tribunes, with consular power, 
were elected, who could also be taken from the plebeians. A long time 
afterwards {2,66 B. C), they obtained, by a continuous struggle, the 
right that the consuls might also be chosen from the plebeians. 
Finally, they wrenched the last privilege from the patricians, viz., 
the exclusive occupation of the priesthood (300 B. C.) One of the 
tribunes, Licinius Stolo, carried the agrarian law, as it is termed 
(366 B. C.) According to this law, no citizen could possess more 
than 500 acres of the public lands, and the patricians who had 
more had to. return the excess, which was divided among the ple- 
beians. Public lands generally, in the future, were likewise to be 
held by the latter. 

What was the effect of this scene ? Give a narrative of the secession of the 
plebeians. What officers did the patricians then grant to them ? To wrhat other 
offices were the plebeians admitted later? Define the agrarian law. Which 
tribune carried it ? 



63 

^ 28. Coriolanus. Quinctius Cineinnatus. The XII Tables 
and the Decemvirs. Incursion of the Gauls. 

During the last, just mentioned sedition, the people had neg- 
lected the tillage of the fields, and now want of victuals followed ; 
finally, a great quantity of grain arrived from Sicily. Some senators 
would have it distributed to the people for nothing, or at least sold 
at a low price; but Coriolanus, a young patrician, opposed this, 
motioning to again deprive the people, on this occasion, of the 
tribuneship, and of the other already granted rights. The people 
became enraged when they heard the news of this motion, and de- 
manded that Coriolanus should be punished for high treason. The 
tribunes appointed the day of the trial. Coriolanus, foreseeing his 
condemnation, left Rome of his own accord, without waiting for the 
sentence, but vowing terrible revenge on the people. He went over 
to the Volsci, instigated them to wage war against Rome, and led 
their army there. He laid waste the lands of the plebeians, but 
spared the estates of the patricians. The city was panic-stricken. 
An embassy of the senate, who left it to him to return to his coun- 
try, and a solemn procession of priests went into the camp of 
Coriolanus, but had no success. Finally, his wife with his sons and 
his mother, Veturia, with other venerable matrons, made their 
appearance before him. The sight of his family brought tears to 
his eyes. But when Veturia reproached him for his ingratitude to- 
wards his country, and, together with his wife and children, knelt 
and embraced his knees, he cried out, agitated : "Helas, mother, 
what have you done ! You have gained a victory which is happy 
for the country, but pernicious for me. Vanquished by you alone, 
I withdraw." He then led the enemies away from Rome, and 
probably was a sacrifice of their vengeance. According to another 
report, he killed himself. The Volsci were vanquished, the same as 
the Aeqjii. 

In the war with the latter, Quinctius Cineinnatus became re- 
nowned. As they had beaten the 'Romans, he was chosen dictator. 
The deputies of the senate, who informed him of his election, 
found him following the plow in his fittle field. He hastened to 
Rome, and from there against the enemies, whom he vanquished. 

§ 28. Why did Coriolanus banish himself ? Where did he go to ? How did 
he deal with the plebeians ? With the senate ? With the priests ? With his 
wife and mother ? What answer did he give to the latter ? What was his end ? 
How did Quinctius Cineinnatus become renowned ? 



64 

After sixteen days he returned to his field and resumed his agricul- 
tural labors. 

In order to check the arbitrary proceedings of the patricians, 
-who alone administered justice, the Roman people demanded Avrit- 
ten laws. Three senators were therefore sent to Greece, in order to 
collect the laws in existence there. Upon their return ten men, 
styled decemvirs, were appointed to select and digest suitable laws, 
and for the term of their work were invested with absolute power 
(452 B. C.) This was the origin of the Twelve Tables, which 
formed the basis of the celebrated code of Roman laws, composed 
in later times. But the decemvirs, after having finished their work, 
refused to resign their power, and began to play the part of tyrants. 
The people became dissatisfied, and a sad event caused a speedy 
termination of their offices. Appius Claudius, the leading member 
of their body, would part Virgmia, the daughter of Captain Virgin- 
ius, a brave plebeian, from her father, pretending that she was the 
fugitive slave of his client, who reclaimed her in court. Her be- 
trothed, and her father, who had hastened from the camp to the 
city, in vain defended her at the tribunal of the tyrant. Appius 
adjudges the virgin to his client, and orders that the grumbling peo- 
ple be forcibly repelled from the tribunal. Virginius then seizes a 
butcher-knife, taken from a neighboring shamble, and plunges it 
into the breast of his daughter, whom he can no longer protect, and 
summons the people and the army to take vengeance on the tyrants 
(449 B. C), who were obliged to resign. Appius was dragged into 
prison, where he is said to have killed himself, and the others, of 
their own accord, left the country. Fifty years after this foreign 
enemies, the Gauls, again threatened Rome with entire ruin. 

They had long before this opened a passage through the Alps, 
and had settled themselves in the northern part of Italy. They ad- 
vanced more and more to the south, and demanded permanent 
dwelling places from the Clusians, in Hetruria. The Clusians asked 
the assistance of the Romans, who sent embassadors to make peace 
between both parties. The embassadors, however, assisted the in- 
habitants, fighting against the Gauls. These demanded from the 

What people did he vanquish ? How long did his campaign last ? Where- 
fore were decemvirs appointed ? What laws did they compose ? By what event 
-were their offices terminated ? Who was Appius Claudius ? Virginius ? What 
insult did the former plan against the latter ? How did Virginius prevent it ? 
What of the decemvirs ? Of Appius Claudius ? What was the cause of the 
war of the Gauls against Rome ? 



65 

Roman senate that they deliver up the embassadors, and this being 
refused, marched, led by Brennus, against the Romans, vanquished 
them near the rivulet AUia (390 B. C), and entered empty Rome. 
According to the report, they found there only eighty senators at 
the forum, where they were seated in their curule chairs (chairs of 
office), keeping a solemn silence. They anticipated nothing but 
death, and received it. Brennus burned the city to ashes, and be- 
sieged the capitoi, into which the warlike troops of the Romans had 
retired. The Gauls were about to take this also, for several had, in 
the night, gained the summit, but the cackhng of the geese of the 
Juno is said to have awakened the slumbering Romans and called 
them to arms. Manlius now first hurries up to the walls, kills a 
Gaul who stands already upon the top, and throws another head- 
long down the precipice. Meanwhile more Romans approach, and 
repel the Gauls. The siege was protracted; famine and disease 
gained ground, but the brave Camillus saved his country. He lived 
then in Ardea, not far from Rome, unjustly banished. Appointed 
dictator, he hastily approached to the relief of the besieged compa- 
triots. These were about to surrender to the enemies. Brennus ex- 
acted one thousand pounds' weight of gold. The sum is brought. 
The Romans complain that he is weighing with false weights. 
Without answering, he throws his sword into the balance. At this 
moment Camillus appears at the head of an army, and declares the 
contract null and void, adding that "Rome must be ransomed by 
steel, and not by gold." He immediately attacked the Gauls, and 
completely routed them. According to another, more credible re- 
port, the Gauls came to an agreement with the Romans, and left 
Rome unimpeded, because an invasion of the Veneti urged them to 
return home. Rome soon began to rise again from its ashes. 
Manlius, who had saved the capitoi, at length aiming at sovereign 
power, was thrown headlong from the same rocks. 

2. OONTESTS FOR THE DOMINION IN ITALT-343-267 B. 0, 

§ 29. "War Against the Samnites and Latins. A Roman 

Army Passes Under the Yoke in the 

Caudine Mountains. 

Until the Gaulic war, the territory of the Romans was limited 
to some miles around the city. After that they subdued the greater 

Who was their leader ? What fort did Brennus besiege ? In what manner is 
it reported to have been saved ? What of Manlius ? How did Brennus plunder 
the Romans ? Who prevented their surrender ? How was Manlius at last pun- 
ished ? 

(5) 



66 

part of middle Italy, then lower Italy. There the Samnites, during 
fifty years, made the most valiant resistance. They lived in the 
mountainous country of the Apennines, were brave, and loved lib- 
erty. Capua, in Campania, occasioned the war in this wise : The 
Samnites, extending their conquests, attacked Capua. This city 
sought aid from Rome. As the Romans were confederated with 
the Samnites, they first admonished them in a friendly manner to do 
no harm to Capua. But the Samnites, paying no heed to that, 
desolated Campania. The Romans then declared war against 
them, vanquished and compelled them to sue for peace (340 B. C.) 

Meanwhile, the Latins demanded from the Romans that they 
be allowed to take part in the highest offices of Rome; they 
wanted to unite and become one nation with them. As the 
Romans refused to accede to their demand, they took up arms. 
The former were commanded by Titus Manlius Torquatus and 
Decius Mus. Manlius issued orders that death should be inflicted 
upon any one who should leave the ranks. The Latin commander 
challenged to single combat any Roman knight. Titus Manlius, 
son of the consul, accepted the challenge, and slew his adversary. 
His father caused him to be crowned for this exploit, but afterwards 
to be beheaded on account of his disobedience. In the decisive 
battle (338 B. C), the wing of Decius gave way. He caused the 
priests to consecrate him for death, rushed, on his war-horse, into 
the midst of the enemies, and was slain. These gave way and the 
Romans gained a complete victory. The Latins were beaten once 
more; then they submitted again. Rome granted citizenship to 
some of their cities. 

The Romans endeavored to extend their dominion more and 
more. In the midst of peace they founded a colony in the terri- 
tory of the Samnites. As they would not abohsh it, the Samnites 
again took up arms (326 B. C.) The Romans advanced victori- 
ously, haughtily rejecting all offers of peace. Fortune now for- 
sook their arms, as they were surrounded in the Caudinse Furculas 
(321 B. C.) Pontius, the brave commander of the Samnites, had 
occupied all the mountain roads, and there was nowhere a way to 

§ 29. What differences caused the first war between the Romans and the 
Samnites ? What city did the Samnites attack ? Were they successful ? Why 
did the Latins take up arms against the Romans ? What fate did Titus Man- 
lius experience ? What was the fate of Consul Decius Mus ? What was the 
result of the war ? How did tlie second war against the Samnites originate ? 
What adversity happened to the Romans in Caudinoe Furculs ? 



67 

pass out. The Samnites then dismissed the Roman army, upon the 
solemn promise of the consuls that the peace and former alliance 
should be re-enacted ; but it had to pass under the yoke formed by 
two spears set upright and a third bound across them. This shame- 
ful doom was submitted to by between 40,000 to 50,000 Romans. 
The Roman senate annulled the agreement, and sent the generals 
who had arranged it back in fetters to the Samnites. These, how- 
ever, justly provoked m consequence of such perfidy, did not 
receive the deUvered officers, but demanded that the whole Roman, 
army should be returned to captivity. This was not done ; the 
same army, rather, marched against them once more. The war was 
carried on with much more hatred. The Samnites underwent n,iany 
bloody defeats. One district, one place, one plantation, one vine- 
yard after another were ruined. At last they sued for peace; they 
obtained it, but they were obliged to acknowledge Rome's sover- 
eignty (304 B. C.) . 

After several years the Samnites recommenced war for the third- 
time ; they fought more bravely than ever, and menaced even 
Rome. The Gauls, the Hetrurians, and other nations of Italy were 
their allies. Nevertheless, they were again defeated several times, 
and their country was terribly desolated. In the decisive battle 
(295 B. C), in which the Gallic cars, furnished with scythes, were 
horribly mowing down the soldiers. Consul Decius, the son, caused 
himself also to be consecrated for death, and perished. The 
Romans gained the victory. The Samnites armed three armies 
more, but they were all vanquished. Pontius himself was taken 
prisoner ; and, with his hands tied to his back, conveyed in triumph 
to Rome. The Romans, far from honoring his valor, ordered him 
to be beheaded. Finally, the Samnites demanded peace; they 
obtained it, but on grievous conditions (290 B. C.) Their allies, 
too, were at last subjected. 

§ SO. Tarentine War. Fabrieius. 

After the Samnites, it was the turn of lower Italy to be con- 
quered. Here the Tarentines themselves gave to Rome an oppor- 
tunity of war. The Roman fleet made its appearance, contrary to 
an old treaty, in their gulf. The Tarentines attacked it, sank sev- 

Who was the leader of the Samnites ? Who annulled the agreement ? What 
misfortune and final fate befell the Samnites ? Who gained the victory in the 
third war? Who sacrificed his life? What of Pontius? §30. State the 
origin of the Tarentine war. 



68 

eral ships, and put the others to flight. When the Romans de- 
manded satisfaction, a petulant crowd insuked their embassadors. 
The Romans then sent an army against the Tarentines. The latter 
called on Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for help. He came with a con- 
siderable army and twenty elephants. The Samnites also were their 
allies. In the first battle (280 B. C), the king, skilled in military tac- 
tics, gained the victory, chiefly, as they say, by the aid of the 
elephants, whose unusual aspect frightened their horses and threw 
the Romans into confusion. Fifteen thousand dead Romans cov- 
ered the battle-field. Pyrrhus also suffered a great loss. Then he 
marched to Latium and approached Rome, but was greatly fright- 
ened - as another Roman army suddenly advanced against him. 
On seeing himself threatened in front and in the rear, he retired 
quickly to Tarent, where he passed the winter. 

He desired to make peace with the valorous enemy, and there- 
fore sent embassadors to Rome, who spoke with such eloquence that 
the senate hesitated whether or not to accept the conditions offered. 
Now, the bHnd Appius Claudius caused himself to be carried into 
the assembly, and spoke with such energy against the advice of 
the embassadors, that the unanimous answer was given to them that 
the conclusion of peace would be out of the question as long as the 
king had not quitted Italy. 

One of the members of the embassy which should treat with 
Pyrrhus about the exchange of the captives, was Caius Fabricius. 
He lived contentedly, and though having administered the highest 
offices, yet he was very poor. All his plate consisted of one little 
goblet. The king offered him a rich present in order to show how 
highly he respected him ; but he refused it. It is also reported that 
Pyrrhus, to test his celebrated presence of mind, ordered his largest 
elephant to be hidden behind a curtain. When the conference had 
been finished, the curtain, at a given signal, was withdrawn, and the 
elephant stretched his trunk over the head of the Roman. Pyrrhus 
carefully watched his countenance; but Fabricius, smihng, said: 
" Your elephant frightens me as Uttle to-day as your money enticed 
me yesterday." 
• In another battle, lasting two days, Pyrrhus was again victorious, 

Who was the ally of the Tarentines ? By whose aid did Pyrrhus gain the 
first battle ? How many Romans were killed ? Where did Pyrrhus then march 
to ? Why did he retire ? How were his embassadors received in Rome ? 
Delineate the character of Caius Fabricius. Relate an example of his frugality; 
of his intrepidity and honesty. 



69 

but he lost so many soldiers that he exclaimed : "■ One more vic- 
tory like this and I am lost ! " As, the next year, Fabricius marched 
against him with a new army, the physician of the king (according 
to common report) sent him a letter, the import of which was that 
for a proper reward he would poison the king. Fabricius, indignant 
at so base a proposal, gave immediate information of it to Pyrrhus, 
who, astonished, exclaimed : " It is easier to turn the sun from his 
course, than Fabricius from the path of honor." The king is said 
to have, through gratitude, released all his Roman prisoners with- 
out ransom. He offered again to make peace, but received the 
same answer as the first time. For the prisoners whom he released 
an equal number of captured Samnites and Tarentines were returned 
to him. 

Pyrrhus then withdrew his army from Italy, in order to assist the 
Sicilians against the Carthaginians; but he was not successful in 
Sicily, and when he returned, in obedience to the entreaties of the 
Tarentines and Samnites, Curius Dentatus defeated him totally. 
Dejected, he left Italy for ever, and returned to Greece. He was 
killed there at a siege by a woman, who threw a stone at him. 
Tarentum had to submit to the Romans. 

3. CONTESTS FOR THE WORLD'S DOMINION-264-133 B. 0. 



I 31. Carthage. First Punic War. Regulus. 

Imperious Rome, after having accomplished the subjection of 
the Apennine peninsula, contrived to make also conquests abroad. 
First it waged war against Carthage. This city became a colony of 
the Phoenicians in this way : As Pygmalion, king of Tyrus, had killed 
Dido, the husband of his sister, in order to get possession of his 
riches, she escaped with them, and founded (about 888 B. C.) the 
above mentioned city on the northern coast of Africa. Carthage soon 
rose, by its many colonies and extensive commerce, over the native 
town. The larger part of the northern coast of Africa, besides 
Sardinia, Corsica and a great portion of Sicily and Spain, were sub- 
ject to her. By means of her riches, acquired through commerce, 
she could maintain numerous armies and a powerful navy. The 
Carthaginians (Punians), only devoted to commerce, despised all a*rts 

What was the result of the second and third battles ? How did Pyrrhus meet 
his death? ^31. Narrate the circumstances of founding Carthage. Who was 
Pygmalion .■" Dido ? What progress did the city make ? What countries did 
it conquer ? 



70 

and sciences through which they could not directly acquire gold and 
treasures. They were deceitful and faithless; henCe the Roman 
proverb : " Punica fides, nulla fides " (Punic faith, no faith). They 
were also cruel and superstitious. They offered human sacrifices 
to Saturnus, and mothers caused their own children to be slaughtered 
for this idol. 

The contest between the Carthaginians and Romans was first 
brought on in Sicily. Mercenary troops of Campania there had 
murdered all citizens in Messina (Messana), where they were 
engaged in service, and taken possession of the city. They were 
ransacking the whole country. They also invaded the territory of 
Syracuse and plundered it. Hiero, king of Syracuse, defeated them, 
and formed an alliance with the Carthaginians. The mercenaries 
asked the assistance of the Romans who, long eager to possess 
Sicily, granted it to the freebooters. In this way the first Punic 
war was brought on (264 B. C.) Hiero was quickly vanquished, 
and allied himself, in order to save his lands, with the Romans. The 
latter defeated the Carthaginians several times. As they did not, 
as yet, possess any navy, they built in a short time 120 ships, using 
as a model for construction (as it is reported), a hostile ship which 
had been wrecked on their coast. Consul Duilius invented grap- 
nels, and a kind of draw-bridge which could be lowered on the ships 
of the enemies. Under his command the Romans gained their 
first naval victory. 

Regulus even went to Africa. Meanwhile the State took care of 
his family and his little ield. He advanced victoriously up to the 
doors of Carthage. "The city was inclined to make peace, but re- 
duced to the utmost by the severe conditions of the Roman general, 
it committed the command of the army to the Spartan Xantippus, 
who had come there at the head of Greek mercenary troops. 
He defeated and captured Regulus (255 B. C.) 

The Romans fought some years with ill success ; nevertheless, 
they rejected all offers of peace. The Carthaginians (so it is usually 
reported) sent Regulus and others to Rome, in order to negotiate 
the exchange of their prisoners. Before departing, however, he had 

■ What is related of the faithlessness, cruelty and superstition of the Punians ? 
Where was the contest between them and the Romans brought on ? In what 
manner ? Who allied with the latter ? What success had they in the contest 
with the Carthaginians ? What incident gave them an opportunity to build a 
fleet? How did Regulus get along in Africa? Who defeated and captured 
him ? 



71 

to swear to return if he should fail in bringing it about. He dis- 
suaded his fellow-citizens from the exchange, because being disad- 
vantageous ; but faithful to his promise, he returned to Carthage, 
unmoved by the prayers of his compatriots, and by the tears of his 
wife and children. There he was put to death with the most cruel 
tortures. In order to take vengeance, the Romans dehvered up to 
his family the most distinguished captives, who were treated not less 
cruelly than the Carthaginians. 

Meantime the war continued to rage. When the forces of the 
combatants were exhausted and their fleets destroyed, Carthage 
seized the pubHc treasure, and in Rome the patricians contributed 
voluntary taxes ; in this manner large new fleets were built. Fmally, 
the Romans gained the decisive battle (242 B. C.) and Carthage was 
compeUed to accept humihating terms of peace. It lost its part of 
Sicily with all the small adjacent islands. This was the end of the 
first Punic war ; it lasted twenty-two years (264-242 B. C.) 

As three years later the Carthaginian mercenaries in Sardinia 
mutinied, the Romans sent troops there and compelled the Cartha- 
ginians to give up the island, and to pay the war expenses besides. . 
Thereafter they also made a conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. 

§ 82. Second Punic War. Hannibal. Battle at Cannae. 

The Carthaginians sought to compensate themselves for the loss 
they suffered in the silver-mines of Spain. Hamilcar conquered a 
great portion of this country, and sent big treasures to Carthage. 
Hasdrubal, his son-in-law, continued the conquests, and laid the 
foundation of New Carthage (Carthagena), in the vicinity of which 
rich silver-mines were located. Rome feeling uneasy on account of 
the increasing power and greatness of its enemy, threatened war, 
and Carthage had to promise that it would not pass over the Ebro, 
the northern hmit of its possessions. 

After the murder of Hasdrubal, Hannibal, Hamilcar's son, Rome's 
most formidable and most implacable enemy, took the command 
(221 B. C.) It is reported that, being nine years old, he caressingly 
asked his father to take him along on his expedition to Spain, and 

Why was he sent to Rome ? How did he discharge his commission ? How 
did the Carthaginians deal with him after his return ? Who gained the decisive 
battle ? On what condition did the Carthaginians obtain peace ? I 32- Wheie 
did Hamilcar and Hasdrubal make new conquests ? Who was the son of the 
former ? 



72 

that he, leading the boy to an altar, made him solemnly swear per- 
petual enmity to the Romans. And Hannibal kept his oath. 

In spite of the remonstrance of the Roman embassadors, he 
besieged Saguntum, which, in fact, was situated beyond the Ebro, 
but was allied with the Romans. He conquered the city after a 
siege of seven months (219 B. C.) The desperate inhabitants 
burned their most valuable property, set fire to the houses, and per- 
ished in the flames. The Roman embassador, Fabius, therefore • 
demanded the delivery of Hannibal. As the senate of the Cartha- 
ginians acted evasively, he folded his toga, saying : " Here is war 
or peace; choose!" A senator replied: "Give us what you 
please ! " " Be it war, then ! " cried the Roman, and let the gar- 
ment fall. 

The most fervent desire of Hannibal was fulfilled. Without 
delay he set out from New Carthage (218 B. C), and hastened 
over the Pyrenees. In the southern part of France he was obliged 
partly to purchase his passage and partly to enforce it by arms. 
He then crossed the Rhone and began to ascend the Alps with 
infantry, cavalry and elephants. As the passage took place in win- 
ter time, he had to overcome the greatest difficulties. The beasts 
had to be led over precipices, snow and masses of ice, as there were 
no beaten paths. He also had to fight with the savage moun- 
taineers. After nine days the army arrived on the summit of the 
mountains (probably the Little St. Bernard). Here, in the snow- 
fields, Hannibal let his army rest for two days, pointing out, in order 
to console the soldiers, the green plains of Italy. The difficulties of 
the descent were not less. The men and beasts, unable to obtain a 
foothold, slid on the steep, slippery paths, and many tumbled head- 
long into the precipices, or sunk into the snow, unable to extricate 
themselves. At last they arrived in the valleys of Piedmont. The 
whole passage over the Alps had lasted fifteen days. Of 60,000 
men with whom Hannibal had set out, not even one-half were left. 

He met the consul Scipio on the banks of the Tessin, attacked 
him immediately and vanquished him, especially through the support 
of his excellent Numidian cavalry (218 B. C.) The Gauls, who had 

What did Hannibal promise, by an oath, to his father? What city in Spain 
did he besiege and capture ? What was the fate of its inhabitants ? How did 
Fabius bring on the second Punic war ? Describe Hannibal's march from Spain 
through France over the Alps. How many days did it require for him to ascend 
the Alps ? How long did the army rest on the summit ? How many men did 
Hannibal lose on the march ? Whom did he first defeat in Italy ? 



73 

enlisted m the Roman army, after the battle, without delay, deserted 
to Hannibal. Soon after, the other consul (Scipio still being sick 
from wounds), ventured a second batde. Hannibal chose such a 
position for his army that a cold wind drove the sleet and snow into 
the faces of the Romans, and vanquished them completely. All 
the Gauls in the upper Gallia joined him. In the next campaign 
he advanced to Hetruria. The Arno had flooded the land, and the 
soldiers had to march in the -water, which reached up to their 
knees, for three days and nights ; the beasts of burden were stuck 
in the mud ; Hannibal himself lost one eye from exertion and an 
inflammation caused by the exhalation of the marshes. Scarce stand- 
ing again on dry land, he aUured the consul Flaminius, by simulat- 
ing flight, into a valley surrounded by mountains, near the lake 
Thrasymenus. Fifteen thousand Romans, surrounded on all sides, 
here met their death. Flaminius, in despair, killed himself. The 
field of battle to this day is called the "bloody field." The 
Romans, in their extremity, appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus, 
ironically called the " Loiterer," as dictator. He saved them by 
his circumspection, carefully avoiding a decisive battle. 

The Romans, becoming dissatisfied with the manner in which 
Fabius waged war, conferred an equal portion of the chief com- 
mand upon Minucius, general of the calvary, who immediately 
attacked Hannibal, but fell into an ambuscade. Many Romans 
were already cut down as Fabius hurried on to support him, and 
still saved him. The next year the foolhardy Varro engaged in 
combat against Hannibal, and lost the great battle at Cannge, in 
ApuHa (216 B. C.) Fifty thousand Romans, among them eighty 
senators, three thousand knights, and one consul (^mihus PauUus), 
lost their lives. This was the greatest defeat that the Romans ever 
suffered. Hannibal is said to have sent three bushels of gold rings 
to Carthage, which the knights had worn on their hands. Grief 
and terror struck Rome when the news of the awful calamity arrived 
there. There was hardly a family in the city which did not mourn 
the death of a dear relation. The citizens were so much afraid of 
the victor that they wanted to abandon the city; and, in order to 
hinder their flight, the doors had to be locked. Most of the allies 
then seceded ; in upper Italy the Gauls destroyed a Roman army, 

Whom in the second battle ? Whom in the next campaign at Lake Thra- 
symenus ? How many Romans met their death there ? Who was appointed 
dictator then ? Who engaged in the third campaign against Hannibal at Cannae ? 
What success had Hannibal, and what was the effect of his defeat in Rome ? 



74 

and Philip II., king of Macedonia, was about to conclude an alli- 
ance with Hannibal. The public treasury was empty. However, 
Rome again took courage. She rapidly collected all the forces still 
left to her ; all the gold and silver was carried to the public treas- 
ury, and the young men, the slaves and the allies who still contin- 
ued to be loyal, were armed. Another army was soon in the field. 
The equipment of the new fleet was maintained by the rich citizens. 

I 33. Concluded. Seipio Afrieanus. Battle at Zama. 

The Romans were afraid that Hannibal would attack their capi- 
tal. He felt, probably, that his troops were not strong enough to 
undertake the siege of the city, and desired first to get the people 
of lower Italy to join him. They all willingly took part with him. 
Then he went into winterquarters at Capua, expecting reinforce- 
ments from home. But the luxury of that city enervated his army, 
and Carthage did not send the support demanded, because the 
domineering aristocratic party there hated him. He was ordered to 
demand peace from Rome, but there his embassadors not even got 
an audience. The slaves defeated a Carthaginian army, and as a 
reward for their valor they were liberated; and Hannibal himself 
was vanquished the first time by Marcellus, at Nola (215 B. C.) 
The Romans incited so many enemies against his ally, Philip of 
Macedonia, that he had trouble enough to defend himself in his 
own land. 

After that Marcellus went to Sicily and besieged the city of 
Syracuse, which had declared itself against Rome. It defended 
itself two years with the assistance of Archimedes, the greatest 
geometer of his age. Wondrous things are related of his machines; 
e. g., by their aid he hurled huge stone blocks into the ships of the 
enemy and submersed them, together with their crews, in the sea. 
At last, in the night, while the inhabitants, after a merry festival, 
were carelessly sleeping, the Romans, with the help of a traitor, 
scaled the walls and took the city by storm. Most of the inhabi- 
tants perished by the sword. Archimedes also was killed by a sol- 
dier who did not know him. Marcellus ordered him to be buried 
with great honor. 

What efforts did the Romans make in their calamity ? ^ 33. Where did 
Hannibal go into winterquarters ? What bad effect did this arrangement cause in 
the discipline of his soldiers ? Why did Carthage not send him any support ? 
Who vanquished him first ? How did Syracuse defend itself against the 
Romans ? Who was Archimedes ? How was the city taken ? How did Archi- 
medes perish ? 



75 

In Spain, where the Romans had for a long time fought with ill 
success, Publius Cornelius Scipio finally rendered their arms victo- 
rious. This young hero, being hardly twenty-four years of age, 
took New Carthage with immense spoils (210 B. C), vanquished 
the Carthaginians, and expelled them from all their possessions 
(210-206 B. C.) 

In the meantime Hannibal, wanting more forces, was in Italy 
Hmited to a defensive war. At last his brother Hasdrubal conveyed 
to him' the long desired reinforcements. He had aheady safely 
passed the Alps ; but, arriving in Italy, he was totally beaten and 
slain (207 B. C.) The Roman general ordered his head to be 
thrown into Hannibal's camp. The latter, painfully struck by the 
sight of the dear head, exclaimed : "Now I perceive the doom of 
Carthage!" A new army sent by Carthage was not more success- 
ful, and at last Scipio sailed into Africa, where he threatened even 
Carthage (204 B. C.) A messenger was sent to Hannibal to direct 
him to return immediately in order to save the capital. He de- 
parted with a sad heart from the scene of his triumphs. He had 
kept his ground in a hostile country during sixteen years with an 
army which, composed from the most heterogeneous nations, served 
only for pay and spoils. Not the least mutiny had ever arisen in 
his camp. 

At Zama the two greatest generals of their age were to decide 
on the field of battle which of the two most potent nations should 
rule. Hannibal foreboded the approaching calamity of Carthage. 
He had an interview with Scipio, in which he offered all the foreign 
possessions of Carthage as the price of peace ; but Scipio refused 
the proposal, and took up the sword. He easily vanquished the 
mercenaries of Carthage. Hannibal's veterans alone resisted 
bravely. The latter lost 40,000 men, and, accompanied by a few 
horsemen, could hardly save himself by flight (202 B. C.) The 
Carthaginians then made peace. They had to give up all their pos- 
sessions, except the old territory in Africa; to deliver almost all 
men-of-war, together with all their tame elephants ; to give a hun- 
dred hostages; to pay 10,000 talents (about $7,770,000) ; to restore 
to Masinissa, king of Numidia and ally of the Romans, all the land 

Who rendered the Romans victorious in Spain ? What failure did Hasdrubal 
experience ? What did his brother say when he saw his head ? Why was he 
obliged to quit Italy? Where was the fate of the two rival nations decided? 
And when ? Mention some circumstances of the battle at Zama. On what con- 
ditions did the Carthaginians obtain peace ? What was the effect of the second 
Punic war on the cultivation of Italy ? 



76 

they had taken from him or his ancestors ; finally, to promise to 
make no more war without permission of the Romans. Scipio's re- 
turn to Rome resembled a triumphal procession. The most magni- 
cent triumph that Rome had ever seen was decreed to him, and the 
surname of Africanus bestowed upon him. To be sure, Carthage 
was now overthrown, but Italy also was laid waste, and nevermore 
rose to the flourishmg condition in which it had been before the 
second Punic war. 

§34. Subjugation of Macedonia, Syria and Greece. 
Death of Hannibal. Third Punic War. Destruc- 
tion of Carthage and Corinth. Scipio, Junior. 

Immediately after having vanquished the Carthaginians, the 
Romans also declared war against Philip II., king of Macedonia, 
and compelled him to pay tribute (197 B. C.) His son, Perseus, 
renewed the combat (168 B. C), but lost his lands, which then be- 
came Roman provinces. Antiochus, king of Syria, incited by 
Hannibal to 'wage war against Rome, was also vanquished, and had 
to purchase peace with a great loss of land (189 B. C.) 

Hannibal, at the court of this king no longer safe against the 
vengeance of the Romans, fled to Prusias, king of Bythinia, in Asia 
Minor. But their hatred also followed him there, and embassadors 
arrived there demanding his deH very (183 B. C.) The king did not 
dare to oppose them. He ordered his soldiers to surround the house 
in which Hannibal was living. The latter, noticing them, sent 
a servant to see if all the doors were guarded, who quickly re- 
turned, reporting that all outlets were seized. Then Hannibal took 
poison, which he had carried a longtime with him, saying, "Let us 
free the Romans from their disquiet, since they have not patience 
to wait for an old man's death." Scipio also died in the same 
year, far from Rome, which he, grieved at the ingratitude of his 
fellow-citizens, had left. 

Meanwhile Carthage recovered from her prostration, and again 
became flourishing and powerful by commerce and industry. The 
Romans perceived it with envy and uneasiness ; therefore they re- 
solved upon the entire ruin of the rival. Masinissa furnished the 
opportunity to execute their purpose. Since the Carthaginians had 
renounced the right of waging war, this king dispossessed them by 

§ 34. Which was the next war of the Romans ? What was the doom of 
Macedonia and Syria ? How did Hannibal end his life ? What king furnished 
the opportunity for the third Punic war ? 



77 



decrees of many lands. Finally, after repeated requests Roman 
deputies arrived, and decided against them. Oxie of them was 
Cato on account of the austerity of his morals called the " Censor. 
He had himself seen Carthage regaining her former power and 
Brosoerity. He represented in the senate the danger which threat- 
Led Rome from that city. He was so exasperated agamst it that 
(according to report) he concluded every speech in the senate with 
the words, "Finally, I vote that Carthage ought to be destroyed." 
When Carthage, at last, by the- right of self-defense, took up arms 
against Masinissa, again the Roman embassadors arrived, pre end- 
ing to mediate peace ; but as soon as Masinissa had vanquished the 
Carthaginians, they unmasked and declared war against them in 
the name of the Roman senate. Terrified, tl^ former declared tha 
they gave themselves up entirely to the will and pleasure of the 
RoLn people. Now the senate wanted 300 children of then- 
noblest families as hostages. The Carthaginians gave them 
Nevertheless, the consuls went with an army to Africa (150 B^ C ) 
and demanded the surrender of their ships and arms. They obeyed 
again Their fleet was burned in their presence. Finally, they were 
ordered to quit their city, and to remove into another part of their 
domimon, distant twelve miles from the sea. The last condition 
struck them with despair. Unanimously they refused to fulfill it, 
and prepared for the last conflict. There was a want of arms. 
They worked both day and night in order to make new ones 
from gold, silver and every metal. Bow-strings were twisted from 
the hair of the women. The gables of the houses were pulled 
down and ships built with them, the temples changed into arsenals 
, and the children, slaves and criminals armed. The Romans attacked 
the city by sea and land, but it oftered brave resistance, defendmg 
itself for two years. When the Romans saw that their arms were pow- 
erless, they committed the command to Scipio Junior. He first cu 
off all connection of the Carthaginians with the land (147 B.C.) 
Then he attempted also to stop up the mouth of the harbor by a 
niole^butjhej^dug^^ 

With whom did the Roman deputies side ? What were the feelings of Cato 
the censor, against Carthage? When did the Romans ^^-^-f ^^^ . J^^^J^^ 
demands did the Carthaginians submit? What was the last o^de o *e 
Romans? Did the former obey it ? How did they provide for the wants of the 
LTe. For arms? Bowstrings? Ships? How long d.d they defend them- 
selfes'? To whom did the Romans then commit the command? In what man- 
ner did Scipio conduct the siege ? 



78 

Two walls are already battered down ; provisions are giving out ; 
still they defy both hunger and the sword. At last Scipio takes the 
harbor by storm (146 B. C), and enters during the night the lower 
city ; the upper and the citadel do not yet surrender. The storm- 
ing lasts six days and six nights. On the seventh day 50,000 in- 
habitants beg for life. Their request is complied with. Nine hun- 
dred go on fighting, and finally meet their death in the flames. The 
wife of Hasdrubal, the general of the Carthaginians, who cowardly 
had begged for life, kills her children and then rushes into the 
flames. Scipio destroyed the remainder of the city by fire. The 
conflagration lasted seventeen days. In this way Rome's rival was 
utterly ruined ! In the same year Corinth was also destroyed, and 
Greece reduced to a Roman province (see § 2^.) 

4. DOMESTIC STRUGGLES AND DOWNFALL OF THE REPTJBLIC-133-30 B. C 



I 8S. The Two Gracchi. War with the Cimbri. War 
w^itli the Confederates. First Civil War. Ma- 
rias and Sulla. War Against the Slaves and 
Pirates. Against Mithridates. Con- 
spiracy of Catiline. Cicero. 

The Romans, after having subjugated so many nations, turned 
their arms against themselves. The epoch of the civil wars began. 
The prelude to them were the tumults raised against the two 
Gracchi. These brothers felt sincere pity for the poor people, and 
as the patricians had again appropriated the greatest portion of the 
State land to themselves, they re-established, when being tribunes, 
the agrarian law. But the former caused commotions against 
them, and both were slain with their followers (the one 138 B. C. ; 
the other 121 B. C.) Their memory was highly honored by the 
people. 

About that time the Cimbri and Teutones, probably German 
tribes, left their settlements in northern Germany and moved to 
Gaul and Noricum (Styria). They demanded new dwelling-places 
from the Romans. As their request was not complied with, they 
took up arms and vanquished several consuls. In Helvetia the 

What parts of the city did he take at last ? How long- did the storming last ? 
How many inhabitants surrendered ? How did the remainder, together with 
Hasdrubal's wife, die ? How long did the conflagration last ? What other city 
was destroyed the same year? ^35. Give an account of the two Gracchi; of 
Cimbri and Teutones. Who defeated them ? Where did they come from? 



79 

Tigurini, who had joined them, and were led by Dmco, defeated 
consul Cassius at the lake Geneva, and made the captives pass 
under the yoke. The Teutones advanced from Gaul, the Cimbri 
from Tyrol to Italy. Rome was panic-stricken by the immense 
number of the giant-like enemies, and by their horrible forms. 
Finally, Manus saved the city. He defeated the Teutones at Aix, m 
Provence (102 B. C.), and the Cimbri at Verona (loi B. C.) 

Soon after, Rome was endangered by its alhes in Italy. They 
unanimously claimed citizenship, and as it was refused them, re- 
solved to obtain it by fighting ; the whole of Italy ought to become 
one repubhc, and Rome no longer be the capital. The war com- 
menced (90 B. C.) and was waged with the greatest vigor for two 
years The best generals of Rome were vanquished; 300,000 war- 
riors, on both sides, lost their lives. Finally, the humbled city 
accorded to the alUes the rights of free citizens (88 B. C.) 

One year later the first civil war commenced. Sulla, leader of 
the patricians, had been chosen commander against Mithridates, king 
of Pontus, in Asia Minor; but the people annulled the election, and 
Marius, their favorite, obtained the desired command. Sulla, with 
his army, came into the town, proscribed Marius and his partisans, 
and then marched against Mithridates. The former returned from 
Africa, whither he had escaped, and joined the consul Cmna, who 
was attached to the same party. Both vanquished the followers of 
Sulla in a bloody battle. Thousands more were killed in the city. 
Marius soon after died from the effects of drunkenness, and Cinna 

was slain. 

When Sulla returned from Asia (83 B. C.) civil war was recom- 
menced; hundreds of thousands fought against him, but he defeated 
them in all places and entered Rome victorious (82 B. C.) Now 
such scenes of murder commenced here as were rarely ever seen on 
earth. In the streets, the houses and the temples, the blood of the 
citizens was running. Six thousand captives were at once killed, 
though .the savage had promised to spare their lives. The rich 
citizens were aU proscribed, the inhabitants of entire cities killed or 
sold, and their estates divided among his legions. He was for some 



What did they demand? From what country did the Teutones advance? 
From which the Cimbri ? What did the Roman allies of Italy claim ? How did 
they succeed by war ? Who waged the first civil war? Give some particulars 
of it. W^hat revenge did Sulla take after his return from Asia ? In Rome ? In ^ 
the country ? 



80 

years dictator, then he retired to private life, and died miserably 
from the consequences of his luxury. 

Soon after the civil war Rome was twice disgraced by being 
compelled to wage war — first against slaves, then against pirates. In 
Capua several gladiators broke forth from a fencing-school ; their 
number soon increased to 120,000 men. They routed several armies, 
and endangered even Rome. At last they were subdued (71 B. C.) 
Besides, many pirates invested every sea, and brought Rome in 
danger of a famine. In order to get rid of them, unlimited power 
of all the land and naval forces had to be be conferred upon one 
man, Cayus Pompeius. He cleared all seas from these dangerous 
enemies (67 B. C), and also completed the subjection of Mithridates 
(64 B. C), excepting I^nnibal, Rome's most formidable enemy, who 
for twenty-six years had pertinaciously contended with the rulers of 
the world. In conclusion, Catiline, a talented but villainous patri- 
cian, then conceived the scheme to set Rome on fire and to pillage 
it, to massacre the senate and to render himself ruler of Italy. Many 
distinguished Romans (Crassus and Jufius Csesar, probably, too) par- 
took in the conspiracy. Consul Marcus Tullius Cicero discovered 
the complot ; the ring-leaders were seized and executed, and Cati- 
line with his partisans killed in a murderous battle (62 B. C.) Cicero 
received the glorious surname, " Father of the Fatherland." 

§ 36. First Triumvirate. Cassar, Pompey and Crassus. 
Second Civil War. Battle at Pharsalia. 

As Pompey had returned from Asia, he, Julius C^sar and Mar- 
cus Crassus united for the purpose of dividing the supreme power 
of the State among themselves, and to maintain it against every 
adversary. As Cato Junior (the Uticenis), learned the news of 
their alliance (triumvirate), he exclaimed, lamentingly : " The 
republic is undone; she has got masters!" Forthwith Csesar, 
against the law, contrived to be appointed for five years pro-consul 
of Gallia. The term of his office was afterwards prolonged to ten 
years. Pompey became, also contrary to law, solely consul, and at 
the same time pro-consul of Spain, which he committed to a dep- 

What was the cause of his death ? Relate some circumstances of the war 
against slaves and pirates. Who was commander-in-cliief against the latter ? Give 
an account of tlie conspiracy of Catiline. Who discovered it ? Wliat was the 
purpose of the conspirators ? What was their doom ? How did Catiline perish ? 
^ 36. Who formed the first triumvirate ? What country did Julius Csesar con- 
quer ? 



81 

uty, while he himself remained in Rome. Crassus, desiring to 
increase his wealth, ventured war against the Parthians, in Asia, in 
which he was slain. 

Csesar completely conquered Gallia beyond the Alps (France), 
and Belgium as far as the lower Rhine. He killed one million, 
which was about the third part of the inhabitants. By the battle of 
Autun, he compelled the Helvetians, who were looking there for 
finer settlements, to return home (58 B. C.) He also vanquished 
■ the German races who, commanded by Ariovistus, crossed the 
Rhine, and repelled them into Germany. 

When his term had expired, he again soHcited the consulship. 
The senate ordered him to first disband his army, and as he did not 
obey, declared him a public enemy, and commissioned Pompey to 
defend the republic. Now Caesar marched his legions to Italy, 
passing the Rubicon, an act deemed equivalent to an open declara- 
tion of war against his country (49 B. C.) Pompey and the senate 
fled into Greece. Caesar conquered Italy without any resistance, 
plundered the public treasure in Rome, subdued Spain, and then 
followed Pompey. In the first battle he was repulsed, but at Phar- 
salia, in Thessaly, he gained, with the aid of his German troops, a 
complete victory (48 B. C.) Pompey fled to Egypt, where the 
king of that country ordered him to be stabbed. Caesar speedily 
followed there. The king died fighting for his throne. Cleopatra, 
his sister, became queen of Egypt, and Caesar jnarched against 
Pharnaces, king of Pontus, and son of Mithridates, whose domin- 
ions he reduced with such rapidity that he announced the result to 
the Roman senate in the well-known words : Veni, vidi, vici, "■ I 
came, I saw, I conquered." 

After his return to Rome, he granted a general amnesty to the 
followers of Pompey, and by his clemency gained a strong hold on 
the affections of the people. Still there jvas a large and powerful 
party in Africa and Spain opposed to him. Passing over to Africa, 
he vanquished the friends of liberty. Cato, who commanded the 
garrison in Utica, seeing that the repubfic was passing away, 
admonished his friends to flee, or to implore Caesar's clemency. 
He himself had resolved not to survive the loss of liberty. After 

Where was Crassus slain ? What did the senate order Ceesar to do when he 
solicited the consulship ? Where did he march then with his legions ? De- 
scribe his public actions in Italy, Spain and Greece. Where did he vanquish 
Pompey ? How did the latter die .'' How did Ccesar succeed against Pharnaces ? 

In Africa ? Delineate the death of Cato Uticenis. 
(6) 



82 

having conversed with them on philosophical topics, he retired to 
his bed-chamber, read Plato's book on the immortality of the soul, 
and then killed himself by running against his sword. 

Caesar, after his return, lavished rich presents on the army and 
citizens of Rome. Every soldier received about seven hundred 
dollars ; every citizen, fifteen dollars, and every inmate the rent for 
one year. Besides, all the people were boarded at 22,000 tables. 
He vanquished also his last enemies, the sons of Pompey (45 B. C), 
and celebrated a solemn triumph over his overwhelmed fellow- 
citizens. He had sacrificed 200,000 human lives in order to found 
a monarchy. The venal senate made him dictator for life, gave his 
name to the month m which he was born, declared his person to be 
sacred, and erected his statue in the capitol, where it was to be ven- 
erated like those of the gods. 

Afterwards, Caesar assumed the air of absolute king and ruler, 
though he tried to promote the prosperity of the State by many 
useful institutions. He distributed the offices and honors among his 
flatterers as he pleased, and treated the most eminent men with con- 
tempt. He endeavored even to obtain the royal crown, and there- 
by committed a crime which, by the Roman law, was punished 
with death. Thf day was already fixed on which the senate was to 
offer him the diadem.; but this day happened to be his day of 
death. More than sixty men, among them the most eminent citi- 
zens, had formed a conspiracy for his assassination. They were 
headed by Brutus and Cassius. Publicly, in the presence of the full 
senate, he was to die. As soon as he appeared there (the 15th 
of March, 44 B. C), the conspirators surrounded his golden chair, 
and one of them requested him to pardon his banished brother ; the 
others seconded the request. As Csesar refused to comply with the 
demand, the former forcibly pulled his toga from his shoulder, and 
another, whose name was Casca, stabbed him with his dagger. 
This was the signal for a general attack. He first defended himself, 
but when he saw Brutus, to whom he always had been kind, draw- 
ing his dagger also, he gave up further resistance ; he covered his 
face and fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the base of 
Pompey 's statue. 

Describe Ceesar's munificence towards the army and the citizens in Rome. 
What adversaries did he last vanquish ? What honors did the senate confer 
upon him ? By what actions did he betray his design to become king ? Give an 
account of the conspiracy against him. What two men were at its liead ? Who 
stabbed liim first ? When did he give up further resistance ? 



83 

§ 87. Second Triunavirate. Antonius. Oetavius and 
Lepidus. Third Civil War. Battle at Aetium. 

The servile people received the news of their deliverance indif- 
ferently. When Caesar's funeral was celebrated, the cunning An- 
tony lifted up his bloody robe before the assembled people and 
pointed out the wounds of the corpse. At the same time he deHv- 
ered a fervent eulogy to the memory of Caesar, and read to the 
audience his will, by which a sum of money was provided for every 
citizen. By such artifices he provoked the populace so that they 
seized fire-brands from the burning funeral-pile in order to set also 
the houses of the conspirators on fire. These were obliged to has- 
tily leave Rome. Then Oetavius, Caesar's adopted son, eighteen 
years old, made his appearance to take possession of the great heri- 
tage his foster-father had left to him. As Antony withheld it from 
him, he declared war against him. The senate and people sided 
with him, and Antony was vanquished in battle at Mutina (Modena). 
But as the senate refused the consulate to Oetavius, the two adver- 
saries were reconciled, and formed an alliance with Lepidus, in 
order to annihilate the republican party. 

First they killed thousands in Rome, among them Cicero, and 
grasped their treasures. Cicero was betrayed to the assassins sent 
to dispatch him by one of his own domestics ; but, tired of life, he 
forbade his servants to defend him, and yielded himself to his fate 
without a struggle. Antony and Oetavius then set out to meet 
Brutus and Cassius, who, by this time, had assembled a great army, 
and vanquished them at Phihppi in two battles (42 B. C.) Both 
generals destroyed themselves. They were called the two last 
Romans. The victors now divided the Roman empire like booty. 
Antony received the Orient, Oetavius the western provinces, and 
Lepidus, Africa. The latter was afterwards deprived of his share. 
Antony passed over into Egypt, and, at the court of Cleopatra 
indulged in luxury. When he gave away even Roman provinces to 
her and her children, the senate decreed (as Octa\ius had desired 
long ago) his removal, and declared war against Cleopatra. Antony 
was vanquished at Aetium, in the Ionian Sea (31 B. C.) Cleopatra, 

§ 37. How did the people receive the news of their deliverance ? Describe the 
devices practiced by Marc Antony at the funeral. What of the conspirators ? 
Of Oetavius? What men united for the second triumvirate? Why? Give 
some proofs of their cruelty. How did Cicero die ? Where did they vanquish 
Brutus and Cassius ? How did they divide the booty ? Where did Antony pass 
his time? Against whom did the senate declare war? Why? 



84 

who had accompanied Antony, overcome with anxiety, departed 
from the scene of action, and the infatuated Antony, as soon as he 
saw that the queen had fled, hastily followed her. His land forces, 
some days later, surrendered to the victor, who pursued the fugi- 
tives to Egypt, where Antony put an end to his own life. When 
Cleopatra, who had shut up herself in her palace, found that Octa- 
vius designed to spare her only to adorn his triumph, she caused a 
poisonous viper to be applied to her arm, and thus followed Antony 
in death. Octavius was now left sole master of the Roman world. 
Rome ceased forever to be a republic. 



SEOOUD OflAPTER-HISTOET OF GIVILIZATION. 



^ 38. Constitution, Moral, Social and Military Condi- 
tion of the Roman State. 

Since the expulsion of the kings two consuls in Rome were at 
the head of the government. They were the commanders in war ; 
the term of their office was limited to one year. In critical times 
dictators, with unhmited power, were elected. The prators admin- 
istered the judicial power. The censors kept the lists of property of 
the people, and superintended the public morals. The tribunes 
were the representatives of the people ; they could annul the de- 
crees of the senate by their veto. There were also ?}iilitary trib- 
unes. The proco7isicls and proprcetors were the governors of the 
conquered provinces. The senate, especially, had control of the 
foreign affairs of the State. 

Until the institution of tribunes (493 B. C.) the people voted, 
in matters of importance, either in comitia curiata, or centuriata ; 
but they effected voting in comitia tributa, in which the citizens 
singly voted. In this way the aristocratic constitution of Rome 
became democratic. First the plebeians were excluded from high 
public offices ; later, they obtained, by their efforts, also access to 
these. (See § 27.) 

In the earlier times of the republic, the Romans excelled by 
frugality, industry, parsimony and strict morality. Since the for- 
eign wars they grew worse and worse. All the wealth of the con- 
Give a description of the battle at Actium. How did Antony and Cleo- 
patra end their lives? Who became then lord of the Roman world? § 38. 
Give the names of the officers in the Roman republic ? What of voting in 
comitia curiata, centuriata and tributa ? Which of these were most democratic ? 
How were the morals of the Romans in the early times of the republic ? • How 
in later times ? 



85 

quered countries flowed into Rome, whereby the morals were cor- 
rupted. The largest part of the people, through these causes, re- 
mained so poor that it was necessary every week to distribute bread 
among them. Wealthy private individuals also amused them by 
games and theatrical representations. The care of agriculture was 
left to the slaves. Laws were, amid combats, given and repealed ; 
offices were sold ; injustice prevailed in the courts. 

The number of Roman slaves was exceedingly great. Out of 
one hundred and twenty milUons of inhabitants of the Roman 
dominion, almost half belonged to his unhappy class of men. 
Many Romans owned over ten thousand. Many physicians and 
actors, and even most of the teachers and tutors, were slaves. The 
doom of the Roman subjects was also severe. They had to bear 
the public burdens, and were frequently plundered by the governors 
of the provinces, who imposed upon them all kinds of heavy taxes. 

The military constitutions of the Romans were excellent. 
Their legions, which numbered from ten thousand to twelve thousand 
men, were composed of infantry and a corps of cavalry. Their 
military signs represented eagles, which were carried upon poles. 
The miUtary disciphne was very severe ; they punished not .only 
with drubs, but even with death. Entire legions were sometimes 
decimated, every tenth man being punished with death. Rewards, 
however, brought about greater effects in the Roman soldier than 
punishments. He who saved a citizen was rewarded with a crown 
of oak leaves. The generals obtained magnificent triumphs. The 
vanquished enemies were, as a general rule in ancient time, reduced 
to slavery. 

§ 39. Arts and Sciences. Julian Calendar. Schools. 
Public Games. Commerce. 

In Greece, the arts and sciences celebrated their golden era 
under Perjcles. He patronized them, adorned Athens with master- 
pieces of architecture, sculpture and paintmg, celebrated splendid 
games and pastimes, and his administration formed an era of great 
internal splendor and magnificence. With the loss of fiberty, the 

Who took care of agriculture ? How was justice administered? Were there 
many Roman slaves? What was the condition of the Roman subjects? Give 
an account of the military institutions of Rome, of the legions, military signs, 
discipline, punishments, rewards and triumphs. § 39. Under whose govern- 
ment did the arts and sciences most flourish in Greece ? When did their lustre 
decrease ? 



86 

arts and sciences also began to decline. During the combat for 
the conquests which Alexander had left, the first Ptolemies opened 
for them a quiet asylum. 

The public buildings of the Greeks, such as temples, theaters, 
and gymnasia, were magnificent. The temple of Apollo at Delphi, 
of Jupiter in Olympia, of Diana in Ephesus, and of Minerva in 
Athens, were renowned. To the latter splendid porticos led which 
formed a marble gate, with five lofty thoroughfares and side build- 
ings, which were reached by a grand flight of stairs. The Romans 
were incomparable in the construction of aqueducts, high-roads 
and bridges. 

The greatest, thus far not excelled statuaries of the Greeks were 
Praxiteles and Phidias. The latter created the colossal statues of 
Jupiter in Olympia, and of Minerva in Athens. Zeuxis, Parrhasius, 
and Apelles belonged to the most celebrated painters. Alexander of 
Macedonia permitted only the latter .to paint him. Poesy, too, pre- 
eminently flourished in Greece. Pindar, of Thebes, composed the 
most sublime hymns and odes; Anacreon, the sweetest social songs; 
^schylos, Sophocles and Euripides, wrote the best tragedies ; Aris- 
tophanes, the wittiest comedies. The theatrical representations, to 
which artistical dances and music were always joined, made an un- 
speakable impression on the spectators, of whom frequently 30,000 
were present. But they also caused enormous expenses, and were 
therefore managed by the States. They were only performed on 
occasion of national festivals. 

Eloquence, in free Greece, attained the highest degree of per- 
fection; it flourished especially in Athens. Themis-tocles, Alcibi- 
ades, Isocrates, ^Eschines, and at the head of all, Pericles and Demos- 
thenes, were the great orators of this city. With regard to Pericles, 
the Athenians said that he bore thunder and lightning upon his 
tongue. Once he dehvered a consolatory oration to the parents 
whose sons had fallen in a battle. All the auditors wgre deeply 
affected. At the end of the delivery, the mothers, with joyful im- 
petuosity, hastened to the orator and tendered him wreaths. Demos- 
thenes trained himself with the greatest zeal for the vocation of a 
public orator. His breath was short, and his voice feeble, and he 
could not distinctly pronounce the letter r. In order to correct 

How were the public buildings? Give examples. Statuaries? What 
statues did Phidias form ? Painters ? Writers of hymns, tragedies and come- 
dies ? Delineate the theatrical representations of the Greeks. Orators ? Give 
particulars of Pericles and Demosthenes. Roman orators ? Greek historians ? 



87 

these faults, he proceeded to the beach of the ocean, and endeav- 
ored to outcry the roaring billows ; he took pebbles into his mouth 
and tried, in spite of this impediment, to speak distinctly; he went 
up precipitous mountains, reciting, with strong voice, long speeches. 
He occupied an underground room, where he placed himself before 
a large mirror and exercised in mimics and pantomime. In this 
way he became the first orator of antiquity. The best Roman ora- 
tors were Hortensius, called the king of the forum, and Cicero, who 
was contending with Demosthenes for the palm of superiority. 

Among the many Greek historians, Herodotus, Thucydides and 
Xenophon occupy the highest place. The first described the Per- 
sian wars, the second the greater part of the Peloponnesian war, and 
Xenophon the continuation of the Grecian history, commencing at 
the latter war. Among the Romans, Julius Csesat wrote the history 
of the Gallic and second civil war; Sallustius, that of the conspiracy 
of Catiline. 

In philosophy, too, the preference, among the ancient nations, 
belongs to the Greeks. Among the olden philosophers Pythagoras 
became remarkable by establishing a league of virtue in lower Italy. 
Its members performed in secret a peculiar divine worship, studied 
mathematics and other sciences, and attempted to improve the 
public governments. Their endeavors succeeded for some time, but 
the blind multitude rose in tumult against them, and they were partly 
killed and partly expelled. 

Socrates surpassed all his predecessors in practical wisdom (see 
§ 2i). His scholar, Plato, was the most renowned philosopher of 
antiquity ; Aristoteles, a pupil of the latter, excelled by the variety 
of his knowledge. He earned, especially in the natural sciences, a 
high desert. 

The Stoics, so called from s^oa, a porch in Athens, where Zeno, 
the founder of their school, taught, declared virtue to be the supreme, 
nay, the only real good. The Epicureans, on the contrary, believed 
that mental and physical welfare is the highest good. The Cynics 
despised sensual pleasure, riches, and prerogatives of birth. They 
gave frequent offense to the good manners of society. Among them 

What did Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon write ? Wliat Julius Csesar 
and Sallustius ? Describe the school of Pythagoras. What sciences did his 
disciples study ? What did they attempt to improve ? Did they succeed ? 
What philosopher surpassed all in practical wisdom ? Who was his most re- 
nowned pupil ? How did Aristoteles excel ? Mention the first principle of the 
Stoics; of the Epicureans ? What of the Cynics ? 



Diogenes of Sinope was, by his ingenious and witty remarks, most 
known. Even Alexander the Great paid him a visit, and admired 
him so much that he exclaimed : " If I were not Alexander, I should 
like to be Diogenes." One day, as he came from Sparta to Athens, 
somebody asked him where he came from. " From the dwellings of 
men into the apartments of the women," was his reply. Among the 
Romans, Cicero deserved best of philosophy. In his main work he 
discusses human duties. 

All the Grecian philosophers also applied themselves to mathe- 
matics. EucHdes and Archimedes excelled in these sciences. Thales 
and Pythagoras were also astronomers. A mathematician of Alex- 
andria (Sosigenes) commissioned by Julius C^sar, computed the solar 
year more accurately. He fixed its duration at 365 days ; every 
fourth year one day should be interpolated. The greatest Grecian 
physician was Hippocrates, who made his appearence in Athens dur- 
ing the great pleague. 

The Grecian schools were in ancient times the best. The works of 
the best poets formed the ground-work of the national culture of the 
Greeks. In the gymnasia, bodily exercises prevailed; still, lan- 
guage, eloquence, and philosophy were also taught. They con- 
tained large court-yards with porticos, careers, bathiiig-rooms, etc. 
Books, in ancient times, were very scarce and very dear. There were 
nevertheless many public libraries ; the two largest existed in Alex- 
andria. 

Public games were, in Greece, generally customary. At Olympia, 
Delphi, Nem^ea, and on the isthmus of Corinth, national games were 
celebrated. Every Greek freeman was admitted to them. They 
drew together an immense concourse from all parts of Greece, and 
numbers even from foreign countries. During their celebration 
every feud was suspended ; even the most bitter enemies met there 
fraternally. The exercises practiced were leaping, running, throw- 
ing, boxmg and wrestling ; also horse and chariot races. The benches 
upon which the spectators were sitting, rose like terraces. The 
victors received wreaths, crowns, triumphal processions, and other 
rewards of honor. Poets, musicians, orators and philosophers also 

Who among them was most known ? Mathematicians ? How did Sosigenes 
compute the solar year ? Who excelled most among the Roman philosophers ? 
What was the name of the greatest Grecian physician ? What instruction was 
imparted in the Grecian schools? How were they constructed? What of 
books ? Delineate the public games of the Greeks. What exercises were prac- 
ticed there ? 



89 

made their appearance at the games, and gained applause and prizes 
of honor by their performances. The most renowned ' games 
were the Olympian ; they lasted five days. The Greeks also com- 
puted their time by them— an Olympiade signifying a period of 

four years. 

In regard to commerce, Carthage, especially, was renowned at 
the beginning of this period. The estabUshment of Alexandria 
opened to it a new career. This city, under the first Ptolemies, was 
the center of universal commerce. The Arabian Sea was connected 
with it by the Nile, to which a canal and a highway led, so that the 
merchandise of India came over the Persian Gulf to the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, and from there to the European countries. This commer- 
cial way continued to be used until the passage to the East Indies 
by sea was discovered. In the next period Constantinople also 
became an important commercial place. 

EXERCISES. 

Describe the life of the following men, according to the points of view here 
given : l. Themistocles— (a) as youth, {b) as hero and statesman, (/) as enemy 
of his country. 2. Aristides— (a) in the battle of Marathon, {b) in the battles 
at Salamis and Platsere, {c) after the Persian wars, {d) proofs of his love of jus- 
tice and contentment. 3. Hannibal's achievements and actions — («) in Spain, 
{b) in Italy, {c) in Africa, {d) in Asia. 4. Comparative representation of the 
actions of the two Brutus ; the elder Brutus— («) as Rome's deliverer, {b) as 
father, {c) as commander; the junior— («) as Rome's deliverer, {b) as general. 
5. A similar comparison of the two Scipios. 6. Gather the scattered traits of 
the life of Pelopidas. By what exploits and incidents in life did Aristides and 
Camillus resemble each other ? What countries did the Romans possess at the 
end of this period ? Which conqueror rose with them at the same time, about 
343 B. C. ? Which two cities did they destroy in the same year? Which two 
celebrated heroes died in the same year; and when? Which internal causes 
brought about the loss of liberty of the Greeks and Romans ? When did the 
sciences and arts celebrate their golden era in Greece ? Who was the greatest 
orator among the Greeks ? Who among the Romans ? 

Where were the most renowned games ? What rewards did the victors re- 
ceive ? What two cities were most renowned for commerce ? How was the 
Arabian Sea connected with the Mediterranean ? What city in the next period 
also became an important commercial place ? ■ 



90 

THIRD PERIOD. 

Frorr] Emperor Augustus to the Great Migration of 

Nations, The Romaq Empire aqd its Decay, 

Victory of Christianity, From 30 

B, C, to 375 A, D, 



FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOET. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 



I 40. Augustus and the Emperors from his Descent. 

Rome had subjected itself to the government of Octavius, and 
he knew how to slyly maintain it. He pretended to his two most 
intimate friends, Agrippa and Maecenas, to have resolved to resign 
the government. Agrippa, a sincere, upright warrior, praised him 
for that, and advised him to do so; but Msecenas held another 
opinion. In the senate Octavius uttered the same declaration; 
Maecenas urged him to stay ten years longer at the helm of govern- 
ment. This political legerdemain Octavius repeated several times. 
He did not touch the forms of republic, but kept the most impor- 
tant offices, especially the supreme command of all armies, and sur- 
rounded himself with a strong life-guard. He was to be called 
prince and augustus (the divine). The mainstays of his dominion 
were Maecenas and Agrippa. He ruled at least mildly. During his 
government, Tyrol, Styria and parts of Bavaria, Austria and Hun- 
garia were conquered. In Germany his legions were defeated 
(see § 42). Though ruler of the Roman world, he was not free 
and happy at home. His third wife, Livia, governed him at pleas- 
ure. By poison she dispatched the next heirs of the throne, and 
compelled him to accept Tiberius, her favorite son, as his successor. 
Finally, he died (14 A. D.), probably himself a sacrifice of her 

I 40. Who were the two most intimate friends of Augustus ? "What did 
they advise him concerning the government ? Whose advice did he follow ? By 
what means did he maintain the supreme power ? Was his private life happy ? 
Who governed him at home ? 



91 

secret malignity. Before he died he is reported to have said to his 
friends : " Clap hands, for I have played well my part." After his 
death, temples and festivals were dedicated to him. In a similar 
manner most, even the worst emperors, were idolized. 

Sad was the fate of the Roman empire under the emperors of 
the family of Augustus. They vied with each other in cruelty, 
luxury and follies. It will suffice to enumerate their names, which 
were : Tiberius, CaHgula, Claudius and Nero. The latter sur- 
passed all his predecessors in cruelty and foolishness. By his order 
even his brother, his mother and wife, and his'teacher, Seneca, were 
killed. He set fire to Rome himself, laid the blame of the action 
upon the Galileeans, a Jewish or Christian sect, and caused them to 
be put to a cruel death. He went so far in his foolishness that he 
publicly passed through Italy and Greece as an actor and singer. 
At last the senate passed the sentence of death upon the monster. 
The coward, not having the courage to take his own life, caused a 
poniard to be thrust into his throat as he was to be seized. (^6S B. C.) 

§ 41. Rome Ruled by Good Emperors. Downfall of the 

Empire. 

After a cruel civil war, in which three emperors were killed, 
good rulers reigned for one hundred years. The first was Vespa- 
sian. He was economical in the administration of the finances, 
and kept the troops in obedience. He instituted public schools, 
was the first who paid teachers, and rewarded artists and scholars. 
During his reign Jerusalem was destroyed by his son Titus (70 A, 
D.), who, by the Romans called " the dehght of the human race," 
passed his short reign (79-81 A. D.) in conferring benefits. 
Nobody left him without receiving comfort. One day, as he did not 
dispense any benefit, he exclaimed, sorrowfully: "Friends, I have lost 
a day." During his reign three calamities disturbed its prosperity 
— a conflagration consumed a large portion of Rome ; a pestilence 
desolated Italy, and an eruption of Mount Vesuvius covered (23d 
of August, 79) the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabise with 
ashes, entirely destroying them. In the last century the two former 

What is lie reported to have said to his friends when he died ? Whom had 
he to accept as his successor ? What was the character of the emperors of his 
family ? What crimes did Nero commit ? What foolish acts ? How did he 
perish ? | 41. Give an account of Vespasian. What city was destroyed during 
his reign ? What did the Romans call Titus ? W^hy ? What calamities befell 
Rome during his reign? 



92 

cities were again discovered and pardy excavated, disclosing the 
city walls, streets, temples, theaters, the forum, baths, monuments, 
private buildings, domestic utensils, etc. The pictures covering the 
walls are still in a well-preserved condition. Several skeletons were 
also found. The skeleton of a woman held a child upon her arm ; 
at her side the bones of two children were lying, who held each 
other in tight embrace. Domitian, a brother of Titus, was a tyrant 
and was killed. Trajan, said to be the best of the Roman sover- 
eigns, took care of the orphans, and augmented the number of the 
public schools in Itkly. The arts and sciences flourished again. 
He constructed the gigantic high-road which runs from the Black 
Sea as far as Gallia. He was also fond of waging war. He con- 
quered Transylvania, Assyria, etc. Adrian preferred peace to con- 
quests, lessened the taxes of the people, and restrained the soldiers. 
He traveled through the greatest part of the provinces of the 
realm, mostly on foot, and arranged good institutions in many 
places. Towards the end of his reign he became cruel. Anto- 
nmus, surnamed Pius, did not rule like a monarch, but as the first 
citizen of the State. His principle was, to protect rather the life of 
one citizen than to sacrifice it for a thousand enemies.- Marcus 
Aurelius, for his philosophical writings surnamed the Sage, con- 
cludes the series of the good emperors (178 A. D.) His son, Com- 
modus, was a rude, blood-thirsty monster. 

In general, from this time forward, the Roman State seldom had 
a good emperor, and if one took possession of the throne he was 
soon killed by the licentious soldiers. The civil wars increased ; 
the morals grew worse and worse ; all bonds of public order were 
dissolved. The change of the regents became more frequent. Sev- 
eral times three or more emperors were ruling at the same time. In 
a period of fifty years (235-285 A. D.) altogether fifty ruled. Under 
such circumstances, the boundaries of the vast empire could not be 
protected against the invasions of its enemies, especially of the 
German nations. It visibly hastened towards its dissolution. 

Among the last emperors of this period Constantine I., by flat- 
terers called the Great, is remarkable (306-337 A. D.) Induced by 
policy, he was converted to the Christian religion, and aided 

What relics were found in the excavated cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii ? 
Give an account of Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus Pius ? What principle con- 
fessed the latter ? Why v^as Marcus Aurelius surnamed the Sage ? What was, 
after his death, the political condition of the Roman empire ? How many 
emperors reigned in the space of 50 years from 235-285 A. D. ? 



93 

its propagation. He also reorganized the administration of the 
State, and estabHshed Byzantium (afterwards called Constantinople) 
as the capital of the empire. As to the rest, he also was a cruel 
despot, who drowned his wife, put his son to death, and murdered 
the husbands of his two sisters, his father-in-law, and his nephew, a 
boy of twelve years of age. Under the emperors Valentinian and 
Valens, who ruled together, enemies assaulted almost all the bound- 
aries of the realm. The Huns arrived in Europe (375 A. D.), and 
caused the commencement of the great migration of the Teutonic 

nations. 

§ 42. Germany. Arminius. 

In the time of the Romans, a great part of Germany still con- 
sisted of forests, marshes and sterile land. The climate was rough. 
Only barley and oats were cultivated. The wealth of the inhabitants 
consisted in cattle and horses. The culture of the soil was first im- 
proved by the Romans. The origin and the first habitations of the 
Germans are uncertain. The Romans called them Germani. They 
had blue eyes, light hair, and were of gigantic size. They were 
divided into many tribes, among which the Suevi, Goths, Franks, 
Cheruski, Saxons and Marcomans were the most powerful. The 
Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards and Alemanni belonged 
also to the German tribes. 

The imperious Romans tried to conquer Germany, and for this 
purpose Julius Caesar crossed the Rhine. He could not, however, 
hold his ground beyond the river. During the reign of Augustus 
'they again advanced as far as the Weser, pitched strengthened 
camps there, -and built forts. Governor Quintihus Varus, a covet- 
ous man, demanded from the freemen taxes which, in their country, 
only slaves used to pay, punished them with axe and rods, and en- 
deavored to introduce Roman laws and language. Outraged by 
this despotic treatment they resolved to throw off the disgraceful 
' yoke. Arminius (Herman), the young chief of the Cheruski, who 
were living at the middle Weser, came to the front as their leader. 
He had commanded German federal troops in Rome, and thereby 
acquired military science. Though rewarded there with citizen- 

What emperor was converted to the Christian religion ? What crimes stained 
his character? What nation arrived in Europe under Valens and Valentinian? 
What migration began then ? § 42. How was the climate in ancient Germany ? 
What were the products of the soil ? What was the general appearance of the 
inhabitants ? How were they governed by Quintilius Varus ? What did they re- 
solve to do ? Who was the leader of their confederation ? 



94 

ship and knighthood, he still remained true to his country. He 
secretly enlisted friends for his project. 

Some chieftains, on purpose, began hostilities at a distance. 
Varus set out with 40,000 men, and allowed himself to be allured 
into the Hercynian forest, where Anninius and the other chieftains 
awaited him with their warriors. There were nowhere beaten 
roads; everywhere only woods and wilderness. Violent showers 
of rain made the way slippery. The Germans attacked with impet- 
uousity ; but Varus was still so infatuated that he even forbade his 
legions to defend themselves. With pains he led them to an open 
place where he burned the wagons and unnecessary baggage. 
Next day he had to continue the march. The Germans attacked 
him more eagerly. The Romans, too, were now fighting, but with- 
out success. When night came on, they would entrench them- 
selves, but the enemies and the incessantly stormy weather pre- 
vented them doing so. The third day they are assailed most forci- 
bly. The slaughter becomes general; now even the bravest lose 
their courage. Some, like Varus, run on their own swords ; but 
most are killed ; few only escape by flight. Some of the captives 
were hanged on trees, others sacrificed to the gods ; the remainder 
had to do the most menial work of slavery. The captured lawyers 
suffered the worst doom. In this manner one of the best Roman 
armies was annihilated, and German liberty saved. When the news 
of the defeat of Varus reached Rome, terror became general. The 
people were afraid of another German invasion of Italy. Augustus, 
at the first onset of grief, tore his robe, locked himself up, and in- 
despair, dashed himself against the wall, exclaiming : "Varus, re- 
store me my legions!" All the German mercenaries were removed 
from Italy, and new troops sent to the Rhine, but they did not find 
the enemies. The Germans were contented to have vindicated their 
independence. 

Augustus endeavored to subject them in the following years, 
but in vain. But Arminius was, in later time, vanquished, his wife 
Thusnelda taken prisoner, and led in triumph through Rome. In 
the war which the Germans after that waged among themselves, he 
himself lost his life by treachery (21 A. D.) 

How did they allure Varus into the Hercynian forest ? Give an account of 
the battle. What was its result ? How did the victors deal with the captives ? 
How did Augustus brook the news of the defeat? What effect did it cause in 
Rome ? What events occurred later in the life of Arminius and his wife ? 



95 
SECOND CHAPTEK-HISTORY OF OIVILIZATIOlf. 



§ 43. Roman Constitution. Morals and Customs of the 
Ancient Germans. 

The first emperors still preserved the republican forms ; there 
were yet consuls, tribunes, etc., elected, but they were only so in 
name. In later times, this practice also was stopped. The army 
proclaimed the emperors, not caring longer to obtain the confirma- 
tion of the senate, and the captain of the body-guard (praefectus 
praetorio) was, next to the emperor, the highest dignitary of the 
empire. Diocletian (285-305 A. D.) estabUshed the pomp of the 
Oriental courts, and the emperors henceforth assumed the title, 
dominus (master). The last vestige of liberty vanished. The taxes 
became more and more oppressive and the armies more numerous. 
Finally, as the citizens refused to fight longer in the wars of the des- 
potic sovereigns, many barbarians were enrolled in the armies. 
Constantine I. divided the whole realm into four prefectures, every 
prefecture into several dioceses, and these into provinces. 

The ancient Germans lived entirely free. Their public aifairs 
were deliberated in general meetings. The lands, too, belonged to 
the commons, and were annually divided among the individuals, 
according to their needs. It was considered a disgrace to survive 
the chief in battle. He who lost his shield became infamous. The 
bards, a kind of poets, encouraged their combatants by their songs ; 
the women, by their speeches. Next to war, the men liked hunting 
best ; house and field must be taken care of by the women and ser- 
vants. Hospitality, faithfulness to a given promise, love of country 
and of liberty were the praiseworthy qualities of the ancient Ger- 
mans ; on the other hand, a propensity for idleness and robbery and 
a passion for gambling and drinking were their national faults. 
They did not think it wrong to go abroad, beyond their district, for 
booty. If everything they had was lost by gambling, liberty even 
was wagered, and the loser willingly became the slave of the other. 
The carousals often lasted for whole days and nights, and yet the 
most important deliberations also were conducted at them. The 

^ 43. What did the Roman emperors still preserve of the old constitution ? 
What title did they at last assume ? What of taxes and armies ? Why did they 
enroll barbarians in the armies ? Give a description of the customs and manners 
of the ancient Germans. Where did they deliberate general affairs ? How v/ere 
the lands divided? Who encouraged them in battles ? Mention their good and 
bad qualities. 



96 

favorite beverage of the Germans was beer, which they drank out of 
the horns taken from killed game. 

^ 44. Religion of the Ancient Germans. Christian 
Religion. 

According to the report, tlie ancient Germans worshiped Wodin 
(Odin), also called Alfader (father of all), as the supreme Being; his 
son, Thor, as the god of thunder; his spouse, Freyja, as the goddess 
of love and wedlock ; Hertha, the goddess of the earth ; the Wal- 
kyres, goddesses of the battles, etc. They believed in a heaven 
(Walhalla), where they would drink beer and mead out of the skulls 
of their killed enemies; and in a hell (Hela). They had sacred 
groves, sacrifices, oracles, priests and priestesses. In those groves 
they kept white horses, according to the neighing of which they 
interpreted the future. They also oflered human sacrifices. They 
highly valued forebodings ; e. g.^ whether at the time of a meeting 
the moon was full or new. Before engaging in important enter- 
prises they asked the advice of the priests. To the women, also, 
they gave credit for being able to cast a prophetic look into the 
future. 

The Greek and Roman refigions declined in this period ; they 
had lost their authority ; the more culture and enlightenment in- 
creased, the greater was the contempt into which they sank. The 
Jews, too, did not adhere so closely to the Mosaic creed. Secta- 
rianism had gained ground among them, and empty ceremonies had 
taken the place of true religion. At such a time, during the gov- 
ernment of Augustus, Jesus of Nazareth made his appearance in 
Palestine, constructing a new and better religion on the foundation 
of the old Judasim. His conduct was strictly moral and pure, in 
general, and even his enemies could not find any fault with him. 
As he attacked the ruling abuses of the religious government, and 
severely censured the vices of the priests and Pharisees, who formed 
a powerful sect, he became the object of their hatred, and perished 
by the violent death of crucifixion. After his death his doctrines 
were collected and written down ; he himself has left nothing in 
writing. His religion had spread, after some centuries, over the 

\ 44. Who was Wodin, Thor, Freyja, Hertha ? What animals did the Ger- 
mans keep in their sacred groves ? Wherefore ? Whose advice did they ask in 
important enterprises ? Why did Christianity gain the ascendency over the 
Mosaic, Greek and Roman religions ? Give some particulars of the life of 
Jesus. When were his doctrines written down? 



97 

whole Roman world, and since Constantine I. had declared it the 
religion of the State, it became predominant in his realm. Its con- 
fessors were called Christians, because its author, Jesus, was called 
Christ (the anointed, the king). 

The causes of the rapid propagation of Christianity were both 
internal and external; and aiiiong those causes the excellence of 
the doctrine deserves to be mentioned, viz., Jesus represented God 
.as the father of all men, recommended his spiritual veneration, 
insisted upon a pure, moral life (as the foundation of the kingdom 
of God), and commanded love and charity towards everyone, even 
our enemies. He taught that all men are equal in the presence of 
God, and members of one family. Therefore his religion gained a 
great many proselytes among the poor, humble and the slaves, 
who felt themselves elevated by such principles. Besides, these 
people were aided by collections from the Christians, destined for 
the comfort of the distressed. Other external causes were : the dis- 
persion of the Jews, whose religion is the foundation of Chris- 
tianity, and the persecution of the Christians, by which their moral 
force was nerved. The blood of the martyrs became the seed of 
new confessors. Sometimes, however, the Christians themselves 
were to be blamed if they incurred persecutions, either by disturb- 
ing the established religious rites, or by being disobedient to the 
laws of the country, or by pressing to the tribunals of their enemies, 
in order to be victims of their creed. Most severely were they per- 
secuted for some time by the Emperor Galerius, imperial colleague 
of Diocletian; still later, he was reconciled with them. 

The Christians themselves soon began to quarrel about obscure 
dogmas of their religion. They did so especially in their ecclesiastic 
councils (synods). From words they went, sometimes, to bloody 
affrays, and even to wars. Since Constantine had conceded to the 
Christian Church the same rights as pertained to the old State relig- 
ion, the persecuted began persecuting; /, e., Arius, a priest of 
Alexandria, taught that Jesus had not existed from eternity, and was 
less than God. For this he was expelled in the council of Nice 

What emperor declared Christianity the religion of the State? Mention 
rsome internal and external causes of its rapid propagation. Why did it gain 
many proselytes among the poor and slaves ? For whom were the collections of 
the Christians destined ? What effect had the death of the martyrs ? In what 
way were the Christians themselves at fault for their persecution ? About what 
did the Christians begin to quarrel ? Give an example. 

(7) 



98 

from communion with the church, and exiled, and his writings were 
burned. His followers were also punished. 

The clergymen obtained great privileges and riches, and soon 
formed a special class (the priesthood), separating from the people 
(the laity). They discontinued civil busmess, took salaries and 
appointments for life ; only the right of confirmation was left to the 
communities. Many degrees of rank were established. The high- 
est priests were styled patriarchs. These took up their residences 
in the most important cities of the empire, and usurped the prerog- 
ative of superintending the bishops. 

§ 4S. The Arts and Sciences. 

The arts and sciences truly flourished thus far during the reign 
of the Emperor Augustus, for he himself and Maecenas were their 
protectors and friends; but, poesy excepted, their most beautiful 
time was already past. The loss of political liberty effected their 
decay, and the rage of destruction, in which Christians and barbar- 
ians vied with each other, hastened their ruin. In this way, under 
Constantine, crowds of priests and monks passed through Greece, 
burned the temples, ruined their works of art, and destroyed the 
most ingenious writings. 

Among the Roman poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid occupy the 
first place. The first, who was most accomplished in language and 
form, wrote idyls, depicted agriculture in a didactic poem, and 
related, in the ^Eneid, the wanderings of ^neas and his settling in 
Latium. The satires of Horace abound in delicate irony; his poet- 
ical epistles contain a treasure of practical wisdom. Ovid, the most 
productive of the Roman poets, wrote elegies from Bulgaria (Pontus), 
his place of exile, love-letters, metamorphoses (a collection of 
myths), etc. Among the Grecian historians the most celebrated 
were Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, author of renowned 
biographies ; among the Romans, besides Sallustius and Cornelius 
Nepos, especially Titus Livy and Tacitus. The former wrote the 
Roman history in 142 books, of which the greater part is lost; the 
latter, the lives of the Augustan emperors. The astronomer, Ptole- 
mseus, supposed the earth to be the center of the universe. His 
opinion prevailed till the time of Copernicus. The elder Plinius wrote 

What of the clergymen ? | 45. Under what emperor did sciences and arts 
flourish ? Who destroyed their productions ? Name some Roman poets ; Gre- 
cian and Roman historians ; a renowned astronomer ; an encyclopedist ; some 
Roman philosophers. 



99 

a kind of encyclopaedia, which comprised most of sciences. He 
lost his life by the eruption of Vesuvius, which he would observe close 
by. Among the philosophers, the best followed the doctrine of the 
Stoics ; e.g., Seneca, Emperor Mark Aurel and Epictetus. The latter, 
in the bonds of slavery also behaVed Hke a philosopher, and was 
Aurel's friend. Lucianus wrote sharp satires, 

EXERCISES. 

Biography of Augustus, according to these main points : i, Augustus, the 
youth; 2, the triumvir; 3, the rival of Antonius; 4, the emperor; 5, as private 
person. Give the names of the best and of the worst Roman emperors. Which 
conquests were added, in this period, to the bulk of the Roman lands ? With 
which emperor began the rapid decay of the Roman empire ? How long were 
the Augustan emperors reigning ? How many years elapsed between Nero's 
death and the destruction of Jerusalem ? How many centuries comprises the 
third period ? From whom does Constantinople derive its name ? What causes 
effected the rapid propagation of Christianity ? What emperors encouraged the 
improvement of instruction and education? What emperor patronized the 
sciences and arts ? 



<^. 



SECOND SECTION. 



HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 



FOURTH PERIOD. 

Fronqthe Migratioq of Nations to the Decay of the Dominioq 

of the Franks; I, Migratioq of Nations, 2, Mo- 

hammedaq Empire. 3, Carlovingian IVlon. 

archy, Frorrj 375 to 900 A, D, 



FIEST OHAPTEE-PGLITIOAL HISTORY. 



1. MIGRATION OF NATIONS-375 TO 568 A. D. 



§ 46. Summary of the Migration. Huns. Attila. 

The Huns, a nomadic nation of the deserts of Central Asia, 
spread terror in Mongolia (Tartary) during several centuries. They 
were ugly and deformed, resembling half-molded blocks ; of yellow- 
complexion, beardless, with small, hollow eyes. They used to eat 
raw meat, after having it softened on horse-back, under the saddle. 
They performed every work on their horses, upon which they sped 
along like arrows. They possessed wonderful skill in shooting arrows. 
They were finally subdued by the Chinese (30 A. D.) A great por- 
tion of them emigrated, for unknown reasons, to the west, crossed 
the Volga, and attacked the nations which had setded beyond this 
river. And now the great migration of nations began (375 A. D.) 

g 46. Describe the Huns; their shape and customs. "What nation gave the 

shock for the great migration of nations ? What river did the Huns cross in 

Russia ? 
101 



102 

Beyond the Volga, the Alani, who belonged to a similar race, were 
settled, and behind them, from the Black Sea to the north, the Ostra- 
goths and Visigoths. The Huns attacked the Alani, dispersed 
them, and settled between the Don and Volga. But soon desiring 
new conquests, they crossed the Don, killed a part of the Alani, 
forcing the rest to unite with them, and chased the Ostrogoths over 
the Dnieper. The Visigoths endeavored to resist, but had also to 
give in ; part of them retired into the mountains, others passed the 
Danube and obtained homes in Thracia. In later time they went 
to Italy. 

The shock of the Huns also exerted its influence upon the Ger- 
man nations living on the Baltic Sea. The Suevi, Vandals, etc., com- 
manded by Radagaisus, poured forth over the Danube and the 
Alps, and overrun Italy (405 A. D.) Beaten by the Romans here, 
they turned to Gallia, laid this country waste, and continued their 
passage over the Pyrenees to Spain, which they divided by lot. The 
Vandals, after some time, set sail for Africa, there founding a new 
realm. 

The Burgundians, forced along by these nations, settled between 
the Rhine and the Rhone, and in course of time spread as far as 
the Mediterranean Sea. The Franks extended their dominion in 
Gallia more and more. 

For a short time Attila, the terrible ruler of the Huns, and as he 
called himself, " the scourge of God," overpowered the lately 
founded realms. In Hungaria was the center of his empire, which 
extended from the Volga as far as the interior of Germany, and his 
residence. This consisted of a number of wooden houses, above 
which his palace, also built of wood, towered. The generals and 
officers of his court had sumptuous carpets, baths, gorgeous apart- 
ments, silver-plate, Greek cookery, etc. He himself held to the old 
customs of his nation, eating and drinking from wooden cups, and 
satisfied with the plainest food. 

The eastern portion of the Roman empire was already compelled 
to pay him tribute ; but he wanted also to subdue the western part, 
and therefore started out with 700,000 warriors. Ten thousand Bur- 
gundians, who marched against him, perished heroically in the uneven 

What nations did they first attack ? What of Radagaisus, leader of the Suevi 
and Vandals? Where did they at last settle? Where did the Burgundians 
settle ? Franks ? Who shook the new realms for a time ? Where was Attila's 
residence ? How did he live ? How his generals ? Delineate his contest 
with the western countries of the Roman empire. Who was fighting against him ? 



103 

combat. The Franks, too, tried in vain to resist him. Now the 
Romans, Visigoths and Alani combined their forces against him. 
Aetius, the last hero of the waning empire, led the Romans ; Theo- 
doric the Visigoths, and Meroveus the Franks. At Chalons, on the 
Marne, the Occident was fighting Attila (45 r A. D.) At that remote 
time Germans were already fighting against Germans ; they decided 
also the battle, the greatest ever fought in the western countries. 
Theodoric was killed, but his son, Thorismundus, gained the nearly 
lost victory; 100,000, according to other reports, even 300,000 
warriors lay slain on the battle-field. 

The next year the Huns, pouring like a torrent upon Italy, de- 
stroyed the city of Aquileia after a siege of three months. The 
inhabitants took refuge in the neighboring islands, thereby laying 
the foundation of Venice. Attila then marched to Rome. Pope 
- Leo I. came to meet him at the head of the clergy, amid solemn 
songs. His representations, supported by the offer of a high ran- 
som, were effective, and the barbarian spared the city, granting 
peace. Attila departed from Italy, and soon after from the world. 
The Huns returned to their country. 

After Attila's death there was again a thronging for homes in 
Italy. The Ostrogoths subjected it (492 A. D.) ; the Lombards 
concluded the migrations (568 A. D.) About the year 600 A. D. 
we find the following nations in Europe : In Italy, the Lombards ; 
in Spain, the Visigoths ; in Gallia, the Franks ; in England, the Brit- 
ons, Angles and Saxons; in Germany, the Saxons, Thuringians, 
€tc. ; to the north of them, Normans and Fins; to the east, the 
Slavonians ; in Hungary, the Avarians, who had immigrated from 
Asia ; and southeast from them the Greeks. 

I 47. Visigoths. Alarie. Downfall of the Western Ro- 
man Empire. Ostrogoths. Theodoric. 
Justinian. Belisarius. 

When the Visigoths were attacked by the Huns, most of them 
passed over the Danube, and were admitted into Thracia by 
Emperor Valens, on promise to do military service, and to confess 

Who was the leader of the Romans ? Of the Visigoths ? Of the Franks ? 
How many were killed in the battle ? Where did Attila march to from France ? 
How was Venice founded? How was Attila reconciled with Rome? Where, 
about the year 600 A. D., were the Lombards settled? Where the Visigoths? 
The Franks ? The Britons ? The Thuringians ? The Normans ? The Slavo- 
nians and Avarians ? The Greeks ? 



101 

Christianity. But being treated deceitfully and cruelly, they took 
up arms, vanquished the emperor, advanced as far as Constantino- 
ple, and desolated the country. Theodosius I. finished the war, 
and made a new contract of service with them. He divided the 
empire among his sons Arcadius and Honorius (395 A, D.) The 
former obtained the Orient, the latter the western provinces. After 
his death, Alaric conducted the Visigoths to Italy, and extorted 
tribute from both the emperors. As Honorius refused longer to pay 
it, Alaric appointed another emperor, and as neither the latter an- 
swered his expectations, he took Rome by storm (410 A. D.) He, 
however, behaved humanely, sparing the lives of the inhabitants. 
He even conducted the defenseless himself into a church for safety. 
Soon after he died. His warriors interred him, with his attire and 
armor, in the midst of the rivulet Busento. The Visigoths then 
went to Gallia, which they conquered as far as the Loire. From 
there they moved to Spain, and also conquered this country. 

After the departure of the Visigoths, other German troops dis- 
posed of Italy at will, until finally one of their commanders, 
Odoacer, deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and was 
proclaimed king. From him Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, 
again seized the dominion and made an offer to the Grecian em- 
peror to go with his entire people to Italy, and to expel Odoacer, 
The emperor, having accepted the offer, Theodoric led the Goths 
to Italy. Odoacer defended himself three years in Ravenna, 
Finally he surrendered the city upon condition that he should gov- 
ern in common with Theodoric, but was murdered during the cele- 
bration of peace, and the latter proclaimed by his people king of 
Italy (992 A. D.) He enlarged his dominion as far as Dalmatia, 
and administered also the government of Spain in the name of his 
grandson. Still in the prime of life, he nevertheless put aside the 
sword, and promoted agriculture, commerce and the arts. 

After his death, the Emperor Justinian ordered his eminent gen- 
eral, Belisarius, who had already subjected the Vandals in Africa, to 
reconquer also Italy. This general had acquired much glory by 
defending Rome with a small army for one year against the twenty 
times larger forces of the enemies (537 A. D.) Finally, they sur- 

^ 47. How did Theodosius I. divide the Roman empire ? Who led the Visi- 
goths to Italy ? What was his success ? To what countries did the Visigoths 
move after Alaric's death ? Who deposed the last emperor ? Who became king 
of Italy after Odoacer ? What exploit is reported of Belisarius ? 



105 

rendered to him their capital, Ravenna. Justinian, jealous of the 
glory of his general, deprived him of the command, whereupon the- 
Goths again fought successfully. At last Narses subdued them en- 
tirely (553 A. D.) He became governor of Italy. 

Also requited by the emperor with ingratitude, and recalled^ 
Narses, to avenge himself, invited the Lombards to come to Italy. 
Led by Alboin, they pourfed into the country and conquered Lom- 
bardy, which received its name from them ; they also conquered 
the larger part of upper Italy (568 A. D.) Pavia became the capi- 
tal of the new kingdom. 

2. MOHAMMEDAN UNIVEESAL EMPIRE-632-900 A. D. 



g 48. Arabia. Mohammed. The Caliphate. 

Mohammed was born (571 A. D.) of poor parents, in Mecca, a 
town of Arabia. He Avas a member of the noble tribe Koreish, 
and of the family Hashim, which formerly protected the prin- 
cipal temple (the Kaaba). He lost his parents early. When sl 
youth, he devoted himself to poetry ; then entered the mercantile 
service of a rich widow, whose hand he obtained by his ability and' 
faithfulness. At a later time he retired into solitude, intending to 
establish a new religion, which should unite the three religious par- 
ties of his country — Jews, Christians and heathens. 

He first communicated his idea to his friends, and soon gained 
their approbation. He then appeared publicly as a prophet, but 
the multitude paid little attention to him. The inhabitants of 
Mecca, earning great profits from the pilgrimage of the Arabs, de- 
clared against him. But the Koreishites, the associates of his 
tribe, most decidedly opposed him, because being the priests of 
the Kaaba, they were fearful of losing their authority and revenues. 
They conspired against his life. The family Omejjah, since olden 
times fostering adverse feelings towards his relatives, headed them. 
They resolved that on an appointed night one member of every 
family should thrust his sword into Mohammed's breast. His ene- 
mies surrounded his house; but AH, his relation, rescued him from 

How did Justinian requite liim and Narses? Wliat German nation then 
subdued Italy ? 2 48. Where was Mohammed born ? To what noble tribe 
and family did he belong ? To what art did he devote himself in his youth ?' 
What did he become later? What was his object when he lived in solitude? 
By whom was his idea first approved ? What tribe opposed him ? Why ? 
What did the family Omejjah resolve upon ? Wlio saved his life ? 



106 

their hands. He fled to Medina, where he had already secured 
several followers (i6th of July, 622 A. D.) From the day of his 
iiight the Mohammedan nations count their years. 

Now he resolved to propagate his doctrine by force of arms. 
According to Arabian usage, he began to fight his tribe, the Korei- 
shites, issuing the command to make war upon all infidels. Sup- 
ported by the inhabitants of Medina, he gave battle to the members 
of his tribe and to their allies, the inhabitants of Mecca, in which 
he was victorious, and secured a rich booty. Finally, they agreed 
to conclude peace with him. He continued his conquests, and 
after some years he became so redoubtable that he dared to summon 
the Grecian emperor and other powerful princes, to embrace his 
religion. As then the inhabitants of Mecca had violated the terms 
of peace, he marched against them and captured the town (630 
A. D.) But he treated the vanquished mildly. He purified the 
Kaaba of idols. Mecca acknowledged him as prophet and sover- 
eign. In the following years he subdued almost the whole of 
Arabia. 

His manners of life were very simple. He lived on barley-bread 
and dates. His couch was a carpet on the bare ground. He re- 
quired no marks of honor ; he did not even permit his associates to 
rise in his presence when he came to see them. He would say : 
" I am a servant of God, Hke you ; I eat and drink Hke you, and I 
get seated like every other man." Both he and his first successors 
often preached at the head of the armies. When he felt that death 
approached him, he Hberated his slaves. He died, probably from 
poison (632 A. D.) 

His first successors (caliphs) were : Abu Bekr, his father-in-law ; 
•Omar, conqueror of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Persia ; Othman, 
<:ompiler of the Koran, and Ali. They all died violent deaths. 
After Ah, the Omejjades were ruling (since 656 A. D.) They con- 
tinued the conquests in Africa. Taric, one of their generals, went 
to Spain (711 A. D.), founded Gibraltar (Gebel-al-Taric — rock of 
Taric), and also subdued the Visigoths. Their capital was Damas- 
cus. They were dispossessed of their territory by the Abbasides, 

Where did he flee to ? From what day do the Mohammedan nations count 
their years ? By what means did he then propagate his faith ? Who were his 
allies in his war against Mecca ? What country did he finally conquer ? What 
was his manner of living? What kind action did he perform before he died.^ 
What of his first successors ? What general founded Gibraltar and subdued the 
Visigoths ? 



107 

■descendants of- Abbas, Mohammed's uncle (750 A. D.) Of the 
latter, Harun-al-Rashid, a contemporary of Charlemagne, attained 
the highest glory. Their capital was the magnificent Bagdad, close 
to ancient Babylon. Towards the end of this period the power of 
the caliphs was decreasing. In order to be protected against the 
■enemies which were threatening them abroad and at home, they 
kept a body-guard of Turkish slaves, which soon became formidable 
to themselves. More and more governors made themselves inde- 
pendent and founded particular dynasties; e. g., Seljook, com- 
mander of Turkish warriors, and Ortok, a Seljookian vassal. Finally, 
the empire was overthrown by the Mongols (1258 A. D.) 

3. 0AKL07INGIAN MONAEOHT-771-900 A. D. 



I 49. Franks. Clovis. Major-domos. Charlemagne. 
Partition of his Realm. 

The Franks (about 450 A. D.), were ruled by Merovccus, foun- 
der of the Merovingian dynasty. His grandson, Clovis (Louis), 
extended his dominion over southern France, Burgundy, Franconia, 
Thuringia, etc., so that it reached from the Atlantic ocean and the 
Pyrenees as far as the river Unstrut, in Bavaria (about 500 A. D.) 
His successors were mere mock kings, in whose names their major- 
domos (stewards of their private estates), governed. One of them, 
Charles Martell (the hammer), at Tours, shattered the forces of the 
Saracens by a complete victory (732 A. D.) His son, Pepin, favored 
by a decree of the pope, dethroned Childeric IH., and caused him- 
self to be elected king. Through gratitude, he assisted the popes 
against the Lombards, seized their possessions and presented, or 
(according to other reports,) invested the former with them. 

Pepin's son, Charlemagne, first governed jointly with his brother 
Carloman (768 A. D.), but after his death he stripped his widow 
and children of their inheritance and took possession of the whole 
■empire (771 A. D.) He immediately began war against the Saxons, 
pretending that he must guard the kingdom and propagate Chris- 

What caliph attained the highest glory ? What was the capital of the ca- 
liphs ? § 49. Who was the founder of the Merovingian dynasty ? What was 
the extent of the donainion of Clovis? What were the major-domos of the 
Merovingian kings ? What exploit did Charles Martell perform ? By whom 
was Childeric III. dethroned ? Who succeeded to the throne after him ? How did 
he use his sisterin-law ? How the Saxons ? On what pretext did he attack them ? 



108 

tianily — a war which, including some interruptions — lasted thirty -two 
years. In the first campaign he destroyed pagan idols highly ven- 
erated by the Saxons. Having scarcely vanquished a part of them, 
he sent them a large number of missionaries, who, incited by blind 
fanaticism, wanted to introduce Christianity forcibly. He built 
castles in order to check them in their own country, and compelled 
the Saxons to aid him in their construction. Finally, after several 
catnpaigns, they swore allegiance to him (777 A. D.), and consented 
to give tribute and tithes, and to get baptized. But Witikind, their 
most respected commander, would not acknowledge the sovereignty 
of Charlemagne, and again waged war. The latter marched against 
him, and the Saxons submitted again. But as Charlemagne desired, 
with their assistance, to subjugate the Slavonians, they surprised the 
Franks on the way and cut down most of them. Charlemagne 
took cruel vengeance (782 A. D.) He caused all who refused 
baptism to be killed. Thousands were driven to the rivers and 
either christened or drowned. About 5,000 who had come of their 
own accord, he ordered to be cut down. Blood, corpses and flames 
marked his march. Then all Saxons rose — also those tribes who thus 
far had remained peaceful — and fought three years with the courage 
of despair. Charlemagne contended against them with fire and 
sword. At last he succeeded in reconciling the heroic Witikind, by 
the power of persuasion, and he consented to be baptized (785 
A. D.) The Saxons again yielded, and remained quiet several years. 
In fact, they threw off the yoke several times more, but always in 
vain. Charlemagne secured his conquests by appointing bishops, 
palsgraves and itinerant judges. 

During his wars with the Saxons, many others also occurred. 
Through ambition he deprived his father-in-law, Desiderius, of 
Lombardy, and his ally Thassilo of the dukedom of Bavaria, and 
put both into convents. Moreover, he waged war against the Nor- 
mans, the Slavonians and the Avares, who often invaded Germany, 
plundering and robbing; also against the caliph of Cordova, etc. 
By all these wars he extended his empire up to the Ebro, Tiber, 
Raab and Eyder. When, in the year 800 A. D., he was in Rome, 
and celebrated Christmas at church, the pope placed upon his head 

How long did his wai- against them last ? Who would not acknowledge his 
sovereignty ? How did he deal with the Saxons who refused to be baptized ? 
What did the Saxons then do ? By whose conversion wei'e they appeased ? 
How did he secure his conquests ? What further wars did he wage ? How far 
did his empire extend ? Where and when was he proclaimed Roman emperor ? 



109 

the Roman imperial crown, and the people proclaimed him em- 
peror. 

Charlemange also endeavored to administer justice in his vast 
realm, as far as the many wars gave him time to do so. He appointed 
palsgraves in the different provinces in order to do justice, and 
annually sent out officers who had to report to him concerning the 
execution of the laws. He provided for the extension of agricul- 
ture, his own estates being its models. Owing to the want of good 
highways, he tried to promote commerce by inland navigation. He 
liked civilization, and endeavored to retrieve by private studies what 
had been Jieglected in his juvenile instruction. He endeavored 
also to disseminate culture throughout his great empire. He at- 
tempted first to cultivate the minds of the clergymen and through 
them the people. He established schools in connection with 
cathedrals and convents, and advanced the culture of the native 
language by collecting German heroic songs. He founded also a 
society for the cultivation of sciences. He honored and rewarded 
well-deserving scholars, such as Alkuin and Eginhard. He died 
after having reigned 46 years (814 A. D.), in Aix-la-Chapelle. 

His son and successor, Louis, called the Pious, being munificent 
towards the clergy, divided the empire among his three sons, and 
by so doing caused great adversities to himself and to the State. 
As after that one more son, Charles, was born to him, he made a 
new partition, with which the others were quite dissatisfied. They 
declared war against their father and took him prisoner. He was, 
in fact, soon Hberated, but after some years the war recommenced ; the 
emperor delivered himself to the sons ; Lothaire put him into a con- 
vent, and induced him to do penance in church (833 A. D.) Though 
he was obliged to set him free, Louis did not get wiser. New parti- 
tions of the empire caused new revolts of his son Louis. After the 
death of the father, Louis and Charles marched against Lothaire, 
who wanted the whole realm alone, and vanquished him in a great 
battle, in which 100,000 Franks lost their lives for their ambitious 
rulers. Then the empire was divided into three portions : Charles 
obtained France; Louis, Germany; Lothaire, Ita ly and Lorraine. 

How did he endeavor to administer justice? To promote commerce ? To 
improve the culture of his mind ? By what means did he try to disseminate cul- 
ture? By what action did Louis, the Pious, render the country and himself 
unhappy ? Give an account of his wars with his sons. Why did his sons 
Louis and Charles wage war against their brother Lothaire ? How did they 
divide the empire ? 



110 
^ so. England. Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great. 

The ancient Britons, in order to protect their country against the 
incursions of their northern neighbors, the Picts and Scots, sought 
the assistance of the Angles and Saxons in Germany: They, in fact, 
arrived under command of Hengist and Horst (449 A. D.), but took 
possession of the country for themselves. The greater part of the- 
inhabitants crossed over to France, and settled in the province 
called, by their name, Bretagne. 

Among the Anglo-Saxon kings, Alfred the Great acquired the 
highest glory (891-900 A. D.) On his accession the rapacious 
Danes (Norsemen) often devastated the country. He fought in vain 
against their numerous bands, and desparing of success, would have 
rushed into their swords to end his life, had not the hope of being vic- 
torious m the future induced him to conserve it. He retired to the 
marshes of Somersetshire, built a castle, and with his few loyal com- 
panions made successful sallies upon the Danes ; but they suffered 
much from destitution. Tradition reports that, under the disguise of 
a harper, he boldly visited the camp of his enemies, observing their 
position and learning their number. Encouraged by his excursions, 
the inhabitants gathered in increasing numbers, and soon he felt so 
strong that he dared to attack the Danes (878 A. D.) He surrounded. 
them from all sides, and forced from them the promise of allegiance 
to him ; he, however, permitted them to establish themselves in the 
land. 

In order to secure England against new incursions by these 
pirates, he built strong forts at their usual places of descent, kept 
many ships in readiness there, and divided the population into two- 
classes, which had to alternate in doing military service. Several, 
invasions of the enemies nevertheless occurred, and at last they 
landed with two formidable fleets (893 A. D.) ; the Danes who had 
settled in England joined them, but Alfred defeated them, and drove 
the larger part back to France where they had come from. They did 
not venture another incursion during his life-time. 

By wise laws he restored order and security in the land, so that 
it was proverbially said of his government: "The traveler who 
lost his purse on the highway found it the next morning untouched 

§ 50. How did England become a possession of the Angles and Saxons? 
Who was the best of their kings ? Give an account of Alfred's wars against 
the Norsemen. How did he secure the land against their incursions ? Show 
how he restored security and promoted civilization in England. 



Ill 

at the same place." He made a collection of the Saxon laws, and' 
being the most learned man in his kingdom, he composed writings,- 
heroical poems, and geographical works. He founded schools, e. g., 
at Oxford, the germ of the celebrated university of that name. He 
set aside a considerable portion of his revenues for the payment of 
the salaries of teachers, and invited foreign scholars, mechanics and 
colonists to the land. In this way he civilized his people. He was 
himself, by his generous and noble mind and simple ways of life,^ 
their brightest example. His last will was, " Englishmen shall be 
as free as their thoughts." He attained, deservedly, the appellatioa 
of Alfred the Great. 



SECOND OHAPTEK-HISTOET OP CIVILIZATION. 



1 51. State of Constitutions. Roman Law. Propaga- 
tion and Degeneracy of Christianity. Mona- 
ehism. Mohammedan Religion. 

In the Byzantine empire the government was growing more 
despotic and the people more servile. The taxes were oppressive. 
Since the accession of Justinian, even taxes were levied on bread 
and water. The public offices were venal. Justinian caused the 
decisions of the ancient teachers of law, and the laws of the 
Roman emperors, to be collected, adding thereto his own decrees. 
This collection, called the Roman law, was recognized as the legal 
authority in most of the European countries, which it partly yet 
maintains. 

Hunger, sterile soil, laziness and want of land, impelled the Ger- 
man nations to conquer the flourishing Roman countries. They 
then divided the lands among themselves, or let them out. In this 
way the feudal system started which, in the following period, was 
further organized. (See § 6i.) 

Most of the German nations embraced the Christian religion. 
In Germany it was propagated by Winfried (called Boniface) ; in 
Switzerland, by Gallus, Columban and others; in Ireland, by St, 
Patrick; in Saxony, Charlemagne established it by force of arms 
(see § 49). It, however, degenerated mor^ and more from its orig- 

I 51. What was the political state of the Byzantine empire? How did the 
Roman law come into existence ? What parts does it contain ? What reasons 
caused the migration of the Teutonic nations ? Who propagated the Christian 
religion in Germany, Switzerland and Ireland ? How did it degenerate ? 



112 

inal purity and simplicity. Many ceremonies and holidays were 
established, pious persons idolized, images adored, miraculous stories 
slyly invented and stupidly believed. The ecclesiastical laws be- 
,came despotic ; true piety and moral conduct were little valued. 
The disputes of the clergy increased, and ended often in warfare. 
The worship of images also caused bloody hatred, because some 
•jejected them entirely, while others even adored them. 

The property of the clergy was exempt from taxation, their per- 
sons were not amenable to civil jurisdiction, and their residences and 
,the churches were turned into asylums for criminals ; sometimes, 
too, for the innocent. In this way they established a State within 
the State. The popes soon acquired the superiority over the other 
bishops, because the capital of the empire (Rome) was their resi- 
dence. After the empire was separated into the eastern and western 
part, a vehement quarrel about rank began, which ended in a vic- 
tory of the popes over the patriarchs of Constantinople. 

The institution of convents and monasteries must also be men- 
tioned. Since olden times fantastic hermits lived in Egypt and 
Hindostan. In Palestine the Essenes had led a solitary life. 
Among the Christians, Antonius and Paul are said to have been the 
J&rst anachorets. Both lived in Egypt in the second century. 
From Egypt and Syria they went to Italy, where Athanasius intro- 
duced them. Some settled in the vicinity of Rome ; others moved 
-farther, even as far as the Black Sea and Palestine. Among them 
were also rich ladies. 

The first hermits lived frugally. They fed on fruits and bread, 
and drank only water. They indulged in an indolent, contempla- 
tive life, and passed most of their time in prayers. Sa«ie braided 
mats and baskets. They despised matrimony, and the greater part 
of them were visionaries. 

When monasteries were built by the funds received from pious 
bequests, the anachorets retired into them and became monks. 
They ceased to work almost entirely. A few copied the manu- 
scripts of classical Greek and Roman literature. Monastic life soan 
grew exuberant. Benedict of Narsia, however, reformed (529 A. 
D-) the degenerated convents in Italy, by obliging the lazy monks. 

What of ceremonies, holidays, idols, miracles and quarrels of the clergy? 
What privileges did the clergy acquire ? Why did the popes become the supe- 
riors of the bishops ? In what countries did the ancient hermits live ? To what 
country in Europe did they go? How did they live first? What was their 
occupation ? What were the monks doing ? Who reformed them ? 



113 

l)esides praying, to cultivate the fields, and to instruct the youth ; 
but they soon again became corrupt. They fostered the beUef in 
miracles, devised an infinite number of legends, advanced the traffic 
in relics, stupefied the multitude, and often indulged in luxury and 
debauches. In the following periods the monks frequently preached 
sermons urging the people to revolt against civil power, opposed 
the light of sciences diffused by intelligent instruction, and were 
blind tools of the popes. 

Mohammed's doctrine, called Islam (creed, faith), is contained 
in the Koran, the book of religion of his followers, who call them- 
selves Mussulmen or Moslems (the faithful ones). The contents 
of the Koran are said to have been revealed to him by the angel 
Gabriel, and were collected soon after his death. In it he recom- 
mends faith in God (Allah) and Mohammed, his prophet ; prayers, 
abstinence from wine, fasting, charity, cleanliness and ablutions of 
the body, pilgrimages, and above all virtues, justice. Each person 
ought to spend the tenth part of his fortune for alms ; also to make 
a pilgrimage to Mecca, if possible, at least once in his life. The 
Friday of every week is set aside for public worship, which consists 
in prayers and sermons. The Koran also calls Moses and Jesus 
prophets, and promises to the elect superabundant joys in the 
future life, which are of the most sensual kind. Mohammed 
allowed his followers to practice polygamy, and endeavored to 
make them indifferent to all dangers of death by the belief in an 
immutable fate. Therefore they fought for thejr creed with the 
utmost contempt of death. One of the principal precepts of the 
Koran is to propagate its doctrine everywhere with fire and sword, 
and to destroy the mfidels. Among the Mohammedans also differ- 
ent sects arose, which made terrible reUgious wars against each 
other. 

§ S2. The Arts and Sciences. Arabian Culture.— Com- 
merce. 

The arts and sciences could not be nursed during the din of 
arms which shook the Occident. The barbarians, both Christians 
and Arabians, destroyed the most beautiful works of human skill 

In what manner ? What were often their doings ? Mention some points of 
the- Mohammedan religion. What book contains it ? What virtues are recom- 
mended in the Koran ? What day is the holiday of the Mohammedans ? Why 
did they despise death ? What is a principal precept of the Koran ? What of 
Mohammedan sects ? § 52. What sovereigns favored the arts and sciences ? 

(8) 



114 

Schools were closed, libraries burned, and the reading of pagan 
authors severely punished. Towards the end of the period, civili- 
zation found a protecting asylum at the courts of Charlemagne 
(see § 49) and Alfred of England (see § 50), but particularly among 
the Arabs. Several of their caliphs favored them in a high degree; 
some of them were themselves artists and scholars. At the time of 
their rule in Spain, there were in Andalusia alone seventy public 
libraries. The Arabs acquired great merit for geography, mathe- 
matics, astronomy, chemistry — the latter science was invented by 
them — and for medicine. They translated the mathematical, med- 
ical and philosophical works of the Greeks. In mathematics they 
excelled their teachers. Their astronomical writings have become 
the foundation of modern astronomy. In most of the cities of 
their dominion there were observatories, and institutes for mathe- 
matics and astronomy. The Gothic architecture was also invented 
by them. In poetry they produced pecuhar tales (<?. g., the re- 
nowned "Thousand and One Nights"), but no dramatic works. 
Being Orientals and Mohammedans, they did not excel in philosophy. 

In the Occidental countries commerce could not flourish during 
the incursions of barbarian nations; -but Constantinople was an im- 
portant commercial town. Justinian introduced the culture of the 
silk- worm which, at that time, was limited to China. As the exporta- 
tion of silk-worms was strictly forbidden, he sent two monks to that 
country, who succeeded in secretly bringing back eggs for seed. 
In later times, the breeding of silk-worms was transplanted from 
the Grecian provinces into Sicily, Italy and France. 

The Arabs, by their conquests, became master of the commerce 
with the Orient. Their caravans passed through all parts of Asia, 
and through the northern and southern countries of Africa. As 
long as they had possession of Spain, the soil was made fruitful 
through artificial irrigation and assiduous culture. Everywhere they 
laid out fine gardens. Cordova, during their government, was, the 
principal seat of commerce, industry, and the arts and sciences. 

In what sciences did the Arabs acquire great merit. What kind of architec- 
ture did they invent ? What kind of poetry did they cultivate ? Who introduced 
the culture of the silk- worm into Europe? In what manner? Who became 
master of the commerce with the Orient ? Where did their caravans pass to ? 
How was the soil of Spain kept during their dominion ? What of Cordova ? 



115 

EXERCISES. 

Give a description of the deeds and adventures of the Huns — i, in Asia ; 2, 
in Europe. Who was the last hero .of the western, and who the greatest of the 
eastern part of the Ronaan empire ? Where and when did the greatest battle of 
the Occident take place ? Which were the capitals of the Caliphs, of the Ostro- 
goths and the Lombards? In what regard do Charlemagne and Alfred the 
Great resemble each other ? Which of the two bears the surname of the Great 
more justly? And why ? How many centuries does the migration of nations 
comprehend? How many years elapsed from the migration of nations to the 
division of the Roman empire ? From Rome's conquest by the Gauls to its 
conquest by the Visigoths ? From the migration of nations to the removal of 
Romulus Augustulus ? From the time when Chai-lemagne was alone ruler, to 
the division of his empire among his grandchildren ? From his coronation in 
Rome to King Alfred's death ? Where did, in this period, the arts and sciences 
most flourish, and what rulers deserved well of their culture ? 



FIFTH PEPxIOD. 

From the Decay of tl^e Empire of tl^e Franks to the End 
of the Crusades, I, German Empire in its PrirT]e; 
. 2, Universal Dominion of ti^e Popes ; 
3. Crusades. From 900 to 1300 A, D. 



PIEST CHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOEY. 



1. PRIME OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE-900-1024 A, D. 



? S3. Germany. Saxon Emperors. Henry I. Otto I. 

Conrad I., on his death-bed, recommended to the electors 
Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Fowler, being the ablest, as his 
successor. He was elected to the throne (918 A. D.) In the first 
years of his government the Hungarians, as usual, invaded the 
German empire. By accident one of their commanders became a 
captive of Henry. He received his liberty on condition that the 
Hungarians should consent to a truce of nine years. But Henry 

? 53. Who was the first Saxon emperor ? What enemies infested the 
German empire ? 



116 

had to pay them annually a tribute (924 A. D.) Meanwhile he 
improved this time in drilling his soldiers and arming them better, 
and in surrounding the open places >vith strong walls. When the 
enemies, after the expiration of the truce, demanded their annual 
tribute, he refused to pay it. They then invaded Saxony, but 
Henry went to meet them, and inflicted upon them, at Merseburg, 
such a bloody defeat (934 A. D.) that they did not venture another 
incursion into Saxony. He protected the realm in the north against 
the Danes, and in the east against the Slavonians. He elevated Ger- 
many to the first rank of power in Europe. There is no vestige of 
injustice or rigor apparent during his long government. A short 
time before he died he assembled the grandees of the empire, in order 
to designate his successor. He had several sons ; yet neither the 
eldest, nor another in whose favor the queen was prepossessed, 
seemed to him to deserve the succession, but he proposed Otto to 
the assembly, who was elected after Henry's death (936 A. D.) 

Otto I. was valiant, but also warlike and ambitious. Berenger 
was then ruler in Italy, and wished to force Adelheid, wife of the 
deceased king, to marry his son. He took her prisoner, and shut 
her up in a solitary tower. But she escaped by the help of a faithful 
servant, and applied to Otto for assistance, offering him her hand 
and the crown of Italy. Otto accepted the offer, went to Italy (951 
A. D.), compelled Berenger to do homage, and married Adelheid. 

When the Hungarians again invaded Germany, he encountered 
them courageously, and gave them battle at Augsburg (955 A. D.) 
The enemies first assailed the rear lines of his army, routed them, and 
plundered the baggage. Twice the issue of the combat was uncer- 
tain; finally the Germans gained the victory. The Hungarians 
underwent a terrible defeat ; most of them were cut down, and two 
of their commanders hanged. After that day they ventured no 
more incursions into Germany. 

Meanwhile Italy had become discontented over the administra- 
tion of Berenger; Otto marched against him once more (961 A. D.), 
deposed him, and caused himself to be elected king of Italy and 
Roman emperor. Soon after, as Pope John XII. himself joined Ber- 
enger, being besides accused of the most shameful deeds, Otto 
ordered him to be deposed, and a new pope to be elected. The 

How did Heni-y protect it against their incursions ? Where did he defeat them ? 
In what virtue did he excel? Whom did he designate as his successor? What 
of Otto I. and Berenger? In what battle did Otto defeat the Hungarians ? Why 
did he depose Berenger ? 



117 

followers of John ventured to attack Otto, but he overpowered them 
in the streets of Rome ; they expelled the new pope ; he led him 
back, and as the last one had died, gave them another one. When 
they also expelled the latter, he blocked up the city so closely that 
the greatest distress soon set in. The Romans were compelled to 
surrender and acknowledge the new pope. The troublesome Ber- 
enger was brought to Germany, where he died. Otto protected the 
empire also against the predatory expeditions of the Danes and 
Slavonians, and subjected the latter as far as the Oder. After having 
reigned a long time, he died generally honored and feared. 

2, UNIVEESAL DOMINION OF THE POPES-1024-1300 A. D. 

§ S4. Germany (Continued). Franconian Emperors. 
Henry IV. and Gregory VII. 

Among the emperors of the Franconian House Henry IV. be- 
came known chiefly through his conflict with Pope Gregory VII. 
Being already the German king when only six years old, ambitious 
priests snatched him from his mother and gave him a poor educa- 
tion. The archbishop of Bremen, especially, fostered the propensity 
for pleasure in the boy, and allowed him to have intercourse with 
immoral lads ; he also instilled into his mind a hatred against the 
Saxons, whereby Henry made himself and Germany unhappy. De- 
clared of age when only sixteen years old, he treated the Saxons 
rudely. As they revolted, he defeated them, but promised to treat 
them mildly, if they would lay down their arms. They did so, and 
delivered themselves into his hands, when he imprisoned them. 
Badly deceived, they applied to Pope Gregory VII. for redress. 
The pope, menacing him with anathema, summoned him to come to 
Rome, as if he were his judge. In return, Henry convoked some 
German bishops, whom he caused to pronounce sentence against 
the pope, and to declare him deposed. The pope promulgated his 
anathema against the bishops and also against Henry, declared him 
to have forfeited his royal dignity, and absolved the Germans from 
the oath of allegiance due to Henry. Most of the German princes 
then declared to the king that, as long as he remained excommuni- 

What was the end of Berenger ? How did Otto handle the popes ? g 54- 
For what struggles is Henry IV. known in history ? How was he educated ? 
How did he treat the Saxons ? How did they revenge themselves for his treach- 
ery ? Where did Gregory summon him to go ? Was he right to summon him ? 
Did Henry obey ? 



118 

cated, they would not acknowledge him as their king, and that if he 
were not absolved from the anathema within a year, they would pro- 
ceed to elect another. 

In this critical situation Henry at last resolved to go to Rome. 
Nobody but his faithful wife, whom he had often grieved, his little 
son, and one servant accompanied him. As his enemies had ob- 
structed all passes through the Alps, he had to travel on detours, in 
the winter season, over the mountains, which were covered with 
snow and ice. He accomplished the journey amid many dangers. 
When he arrived in Italy many bishops and princes forthwith gath- 
ered around him, offering him their assistance ; but Henry had 
become so dejected that he dared not accept their proposals. 

Gregory, who had already started for Germany, in order to man- 
age Henry's trial there, learning of his arrival, quickly looked for a 
shelter, and went into the castle of Conossa, belonging to his friend 
Matilda, countess of Tuscane. Here Henry had to stay (1077 
A. D.), between the second and third walls of the castle, in peniten- 
tials, and barefooted, from morning until evening during three days, 
not allowed to take the least food ; and he was obliged to beseech 
Gregory to dispense with the anathema. Finally the pope, through 
the intercession of Matilda and other powerful friends, consented to 
do so, but on the condition that Henry should abstain from the gov- 
ernment until the German sovereigns would decide that he could 
continue to be their king. 

But the people did not forsake Henry ; the citizens of the towns 
and the peasants flocked around him, and now he went again to 
Italy, not as a penitent, but at the head of an army, in order to 
chastise his enemy. He besieged Rome, and appointed an anti- 
pope. In the spring of the next year he conquered the city, and 
was anointed as emperor by the latter. Gregory still defended him- 
self in the Angels' citadel. The duke of Puglia, though, released 
him, and conducted him safely to Salerno ; but here, in a foreign 
place, he keenly felt that he was forsaken and precipitated from the 
summit of his power. Before his death he again excommunicated 
Henry. One of his successors repeated the anathema. The em- 
peror had to struggle against other adversaries, whom even his sons 
joined. At last the helpless man died (i 106 A. D.) But the implacable 

Describe his journey. Who offered him assistance in Italy ? Did Henry 
accept it ? Into what castle had he to go ? To whom did the castle belong ? 
How did the pope treat him there ? Who did not forsake Henry ? How did he 
chastise the pope ? What of the end of Gregory ? 



119 



priests begrudged rest even to his dead body; twice he was buried, 
and twice pulled out of the grave, because the curse of anathema 
rested upon him. The pope finally revoked it; then Henry s son 
buried the corpse once more. 

? BB Continued. Emperors of the Family Hohen- 
stauffen. Frederic Barbarossa. Arnold of 
Brescia. First Contest of the Lom- 
bard Cities for Liberty. 

The family of the Hohenstauffen (Suabian) emperors, who, m 
honor of their ancestors' casde, were also called Waibhngers, ruled 
Ire than one hundred years (XX38-X.54 A. D.) Their adversaries 
were the powerful Welfs, descendants of the Margrave Welf. The 
combat of the followers of the two houses was continued, especially 
•n Italy where they were called Ghibellines and Guelfs, till the fall 
of the Hohenstauffen. The Guelfs were partisans of the popes._ 

At that time an Itahan priest, Arnold of Brescia, an ingenious 
and high-principled man, conceived the idea of estabhshmg the 
primitive simphcity of the church, accordmg to which the clergy 
ou.ht not to possess civil power, but ought to apply themselves to 
their spiritual vocation only. He also wanted the secular power 
of the popes to be abolished; besides, he desired to deliver Italy 
from the government of the German emperors. His gigantic 
design ehcited enthusiasm in the whole country, except from the 
clergy; the popes excommunicated him. Arnold fled to the quiet 
valleys of Switzerland, where he obtained a safe asylum. Meantime 
the Romans held a meeting, at which they renounced allegiance to 
the pope and declared themselves free. Arnold returned to Rome 
f iiA A D.), accompamed by large bands he had engaged m Switz- 
erland The Romans expelled the pope, and, imitating ancient 
Rome, elected a senate, consuls and tribunes of the people. But 
the Emperor Frederic L, surnamed Barbarossa (Redbeard), came to 
Italy with an army, subdued the revolted towns, forcedan entrance 
into Rome, and vanquished the inhabitants of the city. Arnold 
had again taken to flight, and kept himself hidden. The pope 
summoned the emperor to have the heretic delivered to him. Fred^ 
eric obeyed the pope with alacrity, because he hated Arnold^ 

and Welfs called by Italians? Give a sketch of the hfe of Arnold of B^sc a 
What was the aim of his efforts? What in regard to pnests and popes ? Where 
Idhefindanasylum? What reforms did the Romans make ? Who opposed them ? 



120 

was a friend of the people. His spies soon ferreted him out. In a. 
dark night Arnold was dragged to Rome and immediately burned 
(1155 A. D.) His memory was highly venerated by the Romans. 

Frederic, desiring to restore the power of the ancient Roman 
emperors in Italy, perceived that the liberty of the Lombard cities 
must be destroyed ; therefore he continued to combat them. They 
resisted him valiantly during twenty-five years (1158-11S3 A. D.) 
The popes were their faithful allies. Frederic dealt cruelly with the 
cities. During the second siege of Milan (1162 A. D.), he caused 
the captives to be hung, and the right hands of the carriers who 
conveyed provisions to the city to be cut off. The inhabitants were 
compelled to come into his presence with ropes around their necks, 
and to implore his pardon. The walls and main buildings of their 
city were razed, and the people dispersed into open boroughs. The 
other cities experienced a similar fate. The imperial governors 
added scoff to the already heavy oppression. Every trace of 
nationality was to disappear. The Lombards thus far had lived in 
disharmony. Schooled by their adversity, they re-established har- 
mony and made a treaty of alliance, in which the- pope also took 
part. Now Frederic was defeated everywhere, and a contagious 
disease in Rome destroyed a great portion of his army. Under- 
going great difficulties, he was obliged to retreat over the Alps 
(1108 A. D.) He narrowly escaped with his life; nay, in Susa he 
would have been slain in bed, if a faithful knight had not taken his 
place, pretending to be the emperor. 

After several years he returned, but met with no better success 
in fighting than before. The Milanese, whose city had been re- 
built, obstructed the route of his army. He tried to enforce a pas- 
sage, and attacked the Lombards at Legnano (i 176 A. D.) Victory 
first inclined towards his side, and only a band of Milanese, defend- 
ing their main banner, still kept the ground ; but now the troops of 
Brescia broke forth from an ambuscade and renewed the battle. 
The Germans were totally defeated. The emperor lost his flag and 
shield, and his life was endangered. He was compelled again to 
take to flight, and to make peace (11S3 A. D.) The cities recov- 

What was the final fate of Arnold ? Who honored his memory ? Against 
what cities did Frederic I. wage war? Why? How did he deal with them? 
With Milan ? What good effect did the fate of Milan produce in the Lombards ? 
What was the result of the re-establishment of harmony ? Who was defeated 
everywhere ? Where was Frederic vanquished after his return ? Give an ac- 
count of the battle. 



121 

ered their ancient rights and privileges. He lost his life, after some 
years, in a crusade (1190 A. D.) (See § 60.) 

§ 56. Concluded. Frederic II. Second Contest of the 

Lombards for Freedoni. Conradin. 

Sicilian Vespers. 

Frederic II., deferring a crusade he had promised when he was 
crowned, was excommunicated by Gregory IX., and the excommuni- 
cation was repeated when he, being outlawed, started on the crusade. 
While he was in Palestine fighting the infidels, the pope desolated 
his Italian possessions. Therefore Frederic, having returned from 
that country, turned his arms against him (1230 A. D.), routed his 
soldiers, and forced him to withdraw the promulgated anathema. 
Like his grandfather, he also undertook the combat against the 
Lombards (1236 A. D.), which was most obstinate, for the purpose 
of depriving them of their maintained immunities. The common 
danger rapidly reunited the discordant cities. They also found con- 
federates. First they alhed with the son of the emperor, Henry, 
who had risen against his father in Germany. Henry was van- 
quished, and expired in a prison. Frederic came to Italy and 
joined the governor Ezzelino, called the Ferocious — a demon in 
human form. This man took 11,000 citizens of Padua prisoners 
(1256 A. D.), cut off the arms and legs of those who tried to es- 
cape, and used all so cruelly that only 200 survived. Aided by this 
monster, the emperor succeeded in dispersing the army of the cit- 
ies. But forthwith another enemy, the duke of Austria, rose against 
him. He utterly defeated the imperial army, and the emperor 
had hard work to vanquish him. Frederic then, with a vast army, 
hastened again to Italy ; even 10,000 Mohammedans enhsted in it. 
The cities were entirely defeated (1237 A. D.), and most of them 
taken. Their ruin was imminent, bul Frederic's severity pushed 
them to the utmost resistance. Milan ought again to surrender at 
discretion, but the inhabitants, foreboding the terrible doom which 
threatened them, preferred to die, and defended themselves with the 
boldness of Hons. Their example rekindled the courage of the 
other cities, and soon they gained as new, powerful allies, the 

What was the result of his defeat ? ? 56. Why was Frederic II. twice ex- 
communicated ? Who desolated his Italian possessions ? What revenge did he 
take on the pope ? Against what cities did he also fight ? What allies did the 
Lombards have ? How did Ezzelino deal with the prisoners of Padua ? What 
of the duke of Austria ? Of Mohammedan soldiers ? Of Milan ? 



122 

Genoese, Venetians and Gregory who, like all the popes, hated 
the imperial dominion in Italy. 

Pope Gregory, after haA^ng in vain admonished Frederic to treat 
the Lombards mildly, hurled a three-fold anathema against him. 
The emperor invaded the papal dominions, and conquered almost 
all of them. To such heavy blows the pope, who was almost a cen- 
tenarian, succumbed (1241 A. D.) But soon another quite as 
formidable a combatant. Innocent IV., took his place. The pope, 
not being safe in Rome, fled to Lyons, held a synod there, reiterated 
the excommunication, absolved Frederic's subjects from the oath of 
allegiance, declared all his dominions forfeited, and summoned the 
Germans to elect another king. Immediately two pretenders rose 
against Frederic. They engaged his arms in Germany, while the 
IvOmbards continued the combat in Italy with great acti\dty. 

Their fate was decided before Parma. Frederic beleaguered this 
city, building in front of it, for this purpose, another town which, as 
a password of his victory, he called Vittoria. But one day while 
he was hunting, and his careless soldiers took their ease, the be- 
sieged inhabitants hazarded a sally, defeated his army, and destroyed 
Vittoria (1248 A. D.) His sons were beaten on all posts. He 
himself was sick. Soon after he died (1250 A. D.) Finally, the 
Lombards became entirely independent (1259 A. D.) 

When the pretenders had also perished, the clerical electors sold 
the royal seat of Germany to two foreign princes. The wildest 
anarchy followed ; might took the place of right. All waged war 
against each other. This deplorable condition of things lasted 
fifteen years (1257-12 72 A. D.) 

The house of Hohenstaufifen terminated in a pitiful manner. 
Charles of Anjou, brother of the French king, Louis IX., took 
Naples and Sicily in fee from. Pope Urban IV. Conradin, Freder- 
ic's grandson, desiring to seize his patrimony from Charles, sold his 
dominions, levied an army, and ventured a campaign against him. 
He lost the decisive battle at Naples (1268 A. D.), was taken pris- 
oner and executed. 

But a just retaliation overtook the royal murderer. He afflicted 

What allies did they gain ? In what manner did the Popes Gregory and In- 
nocent fight Frederic? Before what city was the fate of the cities decided? 
What of Vittoria ? Of the sally of the besieged ? What was the final result of 
the contest ? How long did the anarchy in Germany last ? What was the doom 
of the last descendant of the Hohenstauffen ? How did Charles of Anjou govern 
the Sicilians ? 



123 

the Sicilians so cruelly that a conspiracy was secretly planned 
against him, which was suddenly put into execution in Palermo, on 
Easter Monday, as people were going to vespers. The signal for it 
was an insult which a Frenchman offered to a young lad}'. He 
was so impudent as to assault her in the street, asserting that she 
must have a dagger hidden in her clothes. In a moment a thou- 
sand daggers were bared. The insulter was stabbed, and thousands 
of his countrymen fell with him. From Palermo the insurrection 
spread over the whole island; everywhere the Frenchmen were 
doomed. They call this event '•' Sicilian vespers." The inhabitants 
then, in accordance with Conradin's last will, called Peter of Arra- 
gonia to the throne. 

I S7. France and England. Hugh Capet. "William the 

Conqueror. Wars Between England and 

Scotland. The Albigenses. 

One hundred and fifty years after the empire of the Carlovin- 
gians had been divided at Verdun (see § 49), Hugh Capet, the 
powerful count of Paris, put an end to it, and founded a new 
dynasty (9S7 A. D.) In England, on the death of Edward 
the Confessor, Harold, son of the earl of Godwin, took 
possession of the throne; but William, duke of Normandy, 
to whom the late king had either bequeathed or purposed 
the succession, at the head of 60,000 men, went over to Eng- 
land, fought the bloody battle at Hastings with Harold, and 
gained the victory (1066 A. D.) Harold was killed in battle; the 
English army was nearly destroyed, and a fourth part of the Nor- 
mans slain. The victory gave to William the title of the Conquerer. 
He divided the land into 60,000 fiefs, of which he reserved a great 
share for himself, so that he was the richest man of his age ; the 
rest was divided among his soldiers. The inhabitants were dispos- 
sessed and became serfs. In the schools the French dialect of 
Normandy was introduced, from which the modern English lan- 
guage originated. The inhabitants heartily hated the tyrant, and 
seditions were rife during his government.. After every insurrection 

What was tlie consequence of his misrule ? Give a report of the Sicilian 
vespers. 157- What count founded a new dynasty in France? When? 
What duke waged war against king Harold in England? In what battle did the 
rivals meet ? ^Mio was victorious ? What name was bestowed upon William 
in consequence ? How did he divide the country ? How did he use the inhabit- 
ants ? \Vhat language was introduced in the schools ? 



124 

he became more cruel. The news of his death (1087 A. D.) eHcited 
great exultation. Henry II., son of his granddaughter, besides Eng- 
land, possessed the third part of France. His eldest son, Richard, 
surnamed the Lion-hearted, after plundering his subjects of an im- 
mense sum of money, embarked on a crusade to Palestine (see 
§ 60). He was succeeded by his profligate brother, John, surnamed 
Lackland (1199 A. D.) He seized the children of his vassals as 
hostages, in order to be assured of their loyalty. He caused also 
his nephew to be killed, because he had a nearer claim to the 
throne than himself. Philip Augustus, of France, took advantage 
of this crime, and dispossessed John, who was his feudal tenant, of 
the greatest part of the French lands (1204 A. D.) John soon in- 
curred even a worse conflict with Innocent III. This pope had 
incompetently caused the election of an archbishop of Canterbury, 
and as the king rejected the election, he promulgated an interdict 
against England, and the anathema against John, absolved the sub- 
jects from the oath of allegiance, and summoned Philip Augustus to 
conquer the land. John, however, yielded to a cowardly submis- 
sion, swore allegiance to the pope, and agreed to hold his kingdom 
tributary to the Holy See. Induced by such a gain, the pope re- 
voked the interdict and anathema, and desired Philip to make peace. 
But the latter, dissatisfied at having to arm his soldiers for nothing, 
marched against John, and utterly defeated him, visiting upon him 
complete destruction (12 14 A. D.) The barons, provoked by the 
tyranny of their king, beheld the well-timed moment, took up arms 
against him, seized London, and compelled him, in conjunction 
with the clergy, to sign the celebrated Magna Ckaria, or great 
charter of rights and liberties, through which the permanent foun- 
dation of British freedom was laid. As soon as John felt free again, 
he declared the document null and void, and commenced war 
against his vassals, but to the joy of all Englishmen, one year there- 
after he died. The English kings attempted also to subjugate Scot- 
land, to which country they laid claim by the rights of fealty and 
succession ; but the Scotch kings refused to do them homage. As 

What of Henry II.? Of Richard, the Lion-hearted? Of John Lackland? 
What crime did he commit against his nephew? Who despoiled him of his 
French possessions ? What was the cause of his struggle with Pope Innocent 
III.? Who was the champion of the pope ? On what terms did the latter make 
peace ? Who defeated John ? What document was he compelled to grant to the 
barons ? What about his resistance ? By what right did the English kings claim 
the dominion of Scotland ? Who opposed them ? 



125 

John Baliol and Robert Bruce were competitors for the Scotch 
crown, they submitted their claims to the decision of Edward I., 
king of England. The latter decided in favor of Baliol, on condi- 
tion of his becoming a vassal of the English king. Baliol could not 
brook the humiliating acts of vassalage required of him. War be- 
tween England and Scotland followed, and Baliol, being defeated 
in the great battle of Dunbar, was forced to submit to Edward. 
Scarcely, however, had the latter crossed the frontiers, when the 
Scots reasserted their independence, under the brave Sir William 
Wallace, defeated the English, and recovered the whole of Scotland 
as rapidly as it had been lost. The war went on, and they were 
again vahquished and subdued (1305 A. D.) The cause of their 
freedom was revived by Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce men- 
tioned before this. Edward II. marched against him at the head of 
more than 100,000 men, but being met by Bruce at the head of 
little more than a third of that number, he experienced a total defeat 
in the battle at Bannockburn, which established the independence of 
Scotland (1314 A. D.) 

In France, during this period, the Albigenses were cruelly perse- 
cuted. They were a harmless sect, deriving their name from Alby, 
a town in southern France. Their leader being named Peter Wald, 
they were also called Waldenses. They rejected baptism, the 
Catholic doctrine of the Lord's supper, the popes, bishops, indul- 
gences and purgatory; they censured the vices of the clergy, and 
led a peaceable, charitable life. Pope Innocent III. established an 
Inquisitional tribunal, and commanded that a crusade be preached 
against them, because one of the inquisitors was murdered (1207 A. 
D.) The count of Toulouse, who was suspected of having insti- 
gated the foul deed, was forced to participate in the crusade, and to 
fight his own subjects. Whole towns and villages were destroyed, 
and their inhabitants extirpated by fire, sword and rope. In the 
town of Beziers alone 20,000 persons, without any regard to age or 
sex, were killed, and 7,000 of them burned in a church. The cruel 
war was continued till the son of the unhappy count had lost his best 
land, which was taken by the French kings. 

Was Baliol successful ? Did the Scots submit ? Who was their brave 
leader? Who rescued them again? In what battle? What religious tenets 
did the Albigenses hold ? What pope persecuted them ? Give an account of 
the crusade against them. What happened in the town of Beziers ? What of 
the count of Toulouse ? 



126 

§ 68. Northern States of Europe. Normans. Russia. 

Mongols. 

I. The inhabitants of the three countries, Sweden, Norway and 
Denmark, which, in common, bore the name of Scandinavia, be- 
longed to the family of the German nations, and were formerly called 
Normans (Norsemen). They were bold mariners, who furnished 
Iceland with settlers, and also discovered Greenland and some parts 
of North America (985 A. D.) But they frequently undertook also 
piratical expeditions to Germany, England, France and even to 
Spain and Italy, secretly landed on the coasts of these countries, 
desolated and pillaged them, and carried the inhabitants away as 
slaves. They also made conquests. In France, they occupied Nor- 
mandy and Brittany (Bretagne). From the Greeks they seized lower 
Italy, and from the Saracens, Sicily. 

In Denmark, Knut the Great (10 15-1036 A. D.) and Margaret, 
were powerful. The formed was also ruler over Norway and Eng- 
land. He embraced Christianity and promoted agriculture. Mar- 
garet, called also " the Semiramis of the North," ruled over Den- 
mark, Sweden and Norway, 'and united the three kingdoms, by 
the treaty of Calmar, into one monarchy (1397 A. D.) In the next 
period Sweden separated from Denmark, choosing to be ruled by 
State governors. Norway remained united with Denmark till the 
present century (1814 A. D.) 

II. In i?z/5-i'2« and /??/(2;/^ the numerous Slavonian tribes were 
settled, who in the sixth and seventh centuries moved forward as far 
as and beyond the Elbe. They founded several States : their most 
important towns were Kief and Novgorod. One of their chieftains, 
Rurik (about 900 A. D.), possessed a territory extending from Kief 
to Novgorod. His widow, Olga, was converted to the Greek 
Church, which, under Vladimir I., became the established church 
of the State. He divided (987 A. D.) the realm among his twelve 
sons. In this way several principalities sprung up. One of their 
sovereigns was called grand-duke. First the State of Kief, and 
later that of Moscow, was the grand-duchy. 

In the thirteenth century Russia became a Mongolian province, 

\ 58. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Sweden, Norway and Denmarlc ? 
What lands did the Normans discover ? What of their expeditions ? What 
conquests did they make? What queen united the three kingdoms? By 
what treaty ? What tribes were settled in Russia and Poland ? Which were 
their most important towns ? To what church were they converted ? How did 
Vladimir I. divide his realm ? When did Russia become a Mongolian province ? 



127 

and remained so during 240 years (123 7-147 7 A. D.) At last, Ivan 
(John III.), delivered the land from the foreign dominion, but he 
also deprived the towns of their liberty. He subjected all the other 
principalities, and other countries besides. 

III. Genghis Khan (Temudshin), the son of a petty Mongol 
prince, had elevated hmiself to the dignity of lord of all the pasto- 
ral nations throughout the vast plains of Tartary. He entered 
China over the long wall, and took its capital (12 10 A. D.) In 
the north he also advanced into Siberia as far as the borders of 
Europe, and in the west he conquered the lands as far as the Indus. 
Hundreds of thousands were indifferently killed, whole nations 
destroyed, and the largest and most prosperous cities ruined ; neither 
were the treasures of sciences and arts, institutes and libraries spared. 
The sons of Genghis Khan also invaded Russia and defeated a large 
army, but then retired. At last, destruction was also visited upon 
Europe. Octai, one of his sons, sent his nephew, Batu, with an 
immense army to Russia. All Russian armies were defeated. The 
Mongols, like a raging torrent, advanced unchecked, devastated 
the land with sword and fire, and destroyed Moscow and Kief. 
The Russians fled from them as they would from grim beasts of 
prey. Four divisions of the barbarians now invaded Poland, Silesia 
and Hungary. The Hungarians imprudently ventured to fight them 
in a heath, where they were surrounded from all sides and slaught- 
ered like sheep. The Mongolian mothers gave to their children the 
cudgels with which the captive children of the Hungarians were 
slain. The enemies gave heed neither to the embassy nor to the 
public prayers of the pope. The duke of Austria and the German 
knights offered them some resistance. In the battle at Liegnitz 
(1241 A. D.), the Mongols, in fact, obtained the victory, but their 
loss was so great that they had to abandon their purpose of going 
to Germany. France, England, Italy and Germany were on the 
point of arming in the common defense of Christendom, when Batu 
and 500,000 warriors, who still accompanied him, were recalled to 
Asia by the death of their sovereign (1245 A. D.) His realm was 
the largest which at any time existed ; it reached from the peninsula 
of Corea to the Oder and the Adriatic Sea. The Mongols also put 

How long did its subjection last? Wlio delivered it? What of Genghis 
Khan ? Give proofs of his cruelty. What of his sons ; especially of Octai ? 
What countries did they invade ? How did they deal with the Russians ? Who 
offered them some resistance ? What battle did they gain ? Why did they re- 
treat from Europe ? How far did their dominion extend ? 



128 

an end to the caliphate, and destroyed Bagdad. It is reported that 
the slaughter in this city continued forty days, and that 800,000 
inhabitants lost their lives. At last they also completed the con- 
quest of China (1280 A. D.) But this empire again became inde- 
pendent from their dominion (1368 A. D.), and finally the Chinese 
conquered even their own country. 

In the next period, Tamerlane (Timur-lenk, "lame Timur,") a 
remote descendant of Genghis Khan, subdued Siberia, Russia, India 
and other countries, maintained his cruel sway during thirty-four 
years, and threw Asia back into the benighted condition of barbar- 
ity. The capital of his domuiions was Samarcand, in the Tartary 
(about 1370 A. D.) 

3. THE CRUSAI)ES-1096-1300 A. D. 



? B9. First Crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon. Capture 
of Jerusalem. 

Since the time of Emperor Constantine, many Christians made 
pilgrimages to the grave of Jesus, and to the graves and monu- 
ments of the apostles and other saints, imagining that, on account 
of the great hardships they had to suffer during the long journey, 
as well as by the merits of those saints, they could more easily 
obtain the grant of their prayers, and especially the pardon of their 
sins. As long as Palestine was a dominion of the Arabs, the pil- 
grims there could perform the acts of their devotion unmolested, 
but when the Seljooks (a Turkish tribe), was in possession of that 
country, they were often robbed, ill-treated, and even killed. These 
persecutions first suggested to the mind of Gregory VII. the idea of 
conquering Palestine, and he would have executed the project had 
he lived long enough. But this work was reserved for Urban II. 
He found an excellent tool for this purpose in Peter of Amiens. 
This fanatic hermit, who had long lived in Palestine, delivered to 
the pope a letter from the patriarch of Jerusalem, in which the dis- 
tress of the Christians was vividly presented, and the Occident 
implored for help. Bare-footed, riding an ass, and with a crucifix 
in his hand, he passed through Italy, France and Germany, sum- 
monmg the Christians, in the name of Jesus, who, as he asserted. 

What of the caliphate ? How did the inhabitants of Bagdad fare ? What of 
Tamerlane ? § 59. Where, since Constantine I., would the Christian pilgrims 
travel ? Why ? By which Mohammedan tribe were they molested ? Which 
pope wanted to conquer Palestine ? 



129 

had appeared to him in the vestibule of. the temple, to deliver the 
holy countries from the infidels. The pope himself, in the councils 
at Piacenza and Clermont, most impressively discussed the merit of 
helping the Oriental Christians. It was resolved to make war upon 
the enemies of their creed, the cry being: " God wills it! " The 
assembled crowds fastened a red cross on their shoulders, through 
which they got the name " Crusaders." 

First, Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, a poor knight, 
started with several hundred thousands, and murdering and pillag- 
ing, passed through Germany, where they especially killed the Jews, 
and moved through Hungary to Greece. The most of them were 
dispatched during their march by the inhabitants of these countries, 
and the rest quickly shipped by the Greek emperor to Asia Minor, 
where they also perished miserably. Only Peter saved himself with 
a small troop, and fled back to Constantinople. 

Then the well-organized main army, numbering 600,000 men, 
began its march, led by the valiant Godfrey of Bouillon. They 
reached Asia safely, but here want, danger and combat also began 
for them. The crusaders were in an unknown country, and had to 
deal with warlike, courageous enemies ; nay, the Greeks themselves, 
by whom they were hated, because confessors of popery, became 
treacherous, often leading them astray on purpose. The siege of 
the towns was protracted ; hunger and disease destroyed thousands. 
Thus it happened that the crusaders did not arrive in Syria for two 
years. Here they besieged Antioch for nine months. Famine was 
raging; many, among them Peter himself, took flight ; but the latter 
was overtaken and brought back to the camp. 

Finally the army reached Jerusalem, but it had dwindled down 
to 60,000 men. There it had to struggle again with hunger ; be- 
sides, water was very scarce, for the enemies had destroyed all foun- 
tains far and near. Moreover, the country being destitute of 
woods, blockading machines were wanting, and the Seldjooks de- 
fended the city with the courage of despair. Nevertheless, after 
five weeks, it was taken by treachery (14th of July, 1099 A. D.) 

Which hermit promoted his design ? Report the doings of the latter. What 
was resolved upon at the councils of Piaceuza and Clermont ? Why were the 
pilgrims called Crusaders ? What leaders conducted the first expedition ? How 
did it get along ? How many men were in the second army ? Who was the 
leader? Where did they encounter dangers? What were the dangers? How 
long did the siege of Antioch last ? What of Peter ? How large was the army 
when it reached Jerusalem ? What difficulties did it experience there ? 

(9) 



130 

Godfrey was among the first who scaled the walls. The victors 
committed a horrible slaughter of the enemies. Crying again, 
" God wills it !" they massacred every one ; not even the babes were 
spared. Down the stairs of the mosque drizzled the blood of 10,000 
butchered Saracens. The Jews had to share the same fate ; they 
were driven into the synagogue and there burned. With the fury 
of cannibals, the bellies of many were cut open in order to see 
whether they had not devoured any coin. In this way 40,000, 
according to other reports, 70,000 persons were killed in one day. 
The crusaders then passed through the blood-stained streets to the 
sepulchre of Jesus, who had enjoined meekness upon his followers, 
and entuned anthems of praise to his honor. They elected God- 
frey king of Jerusalem, but he refused to accept this honor in a 
place where the founder of his religion had walked in humihty; he 
called himself modestly the protector of the holy sepulchre. 

I 60. The Other Crusades. Kmir Saladin. Latin 
Empire. 

The war against the Mohammedans was continued. Several 
important crusades were yet waged against them. Emperor Conrad 
III. and Louis VII., king of France, were the leaders in the sec- 
ond. Saint Bernard had incited them to undertake it, predicting 
a glorious success; but of 200,000 crusaders almost all perished. 
Bernard was smart enough to attribute the failure of their enterprise 
to the sins of the crusaders. — The third crusade was caused by 
Rainold, a knight of Antioch, in this way : A Mohammedan cara- 
van went on a pilgrimage to Mecca; with it was also the mother of 
the celebrated Saladin, Emir of Egypt, who ruled this country, and 
had also conquered Tripolis, Tunis and Syria. Rainold surprised 
the pilgrims, plundered them and killed the companions of Saladin's 
mother. The emir demanded satisfaction for that hostile deed from 
Guido, king of Jerusalem ; as it was refused, he waged war against him, 
totally defeated his army at Tiberias (1187 A. D.), and took him 
prisoner, together with many other noblemen. But he generously 
released the king from captivity, when he had promised by oath not 
to take up arms against him ; only Rainold received the death-blow. 

How did the victors of the city act ? How many captives did they kill ? 
Give particulars of the massacre. Who was elected king of Jerusalem ? Who 
undertook the second crusade ? Was it a success ? What of St. Bernard ? 
What caused the third crusade ? What did Saladin demand from Guido ? Where 
did he defeat him ? 



131 

Jerusalem was besieged and surrendered ; Saladin did not stain his 
victory by wanton cruelty. Nobody was killed; the captives were 
permitted, for a ransom, to go free with their property ; and those 
who were unable to raise it were dismissed without paying. Finally, 
he distributed almost the whole sum of money thus collected by 
■ransom among those who had no money to pay their fare. 

Saladin's generosity did not touch the feelings of the Christian 
sovereigns ; the most powerful of them made preparations for a new 
campaign. First, Emperor Frederic I. set out with 100,000 war- 
riors (i 189 A. D.) He vanquished the Seldjooks at Iconium, in Asia 
Minor, in a bloody battle, but as he was crossing the river Saleph 
on horseback, he was drowned. His army, too, perished miserably 
by disease. 

One year later, Richard the Lion-hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king 
of England, Philip August, king of France, and Leopold, duke of 
Austria, set out on their march. But national hatred disunited 
them. Their sole joint exploit was the conquest of Acre (Ptolemais), 
in Syria. Richard ordered Leopold's flag to be torn from the 
house he had taken possession of, and to be trampled in the 
mire. Provoked by this insolence, Leopold and Phihp left the 
army of the crusaders and returned home. The besieged had 
capitulated by promising a ransom. When Saladin did not pay it 
at the appointed time, Richard commanded the prisoners to be 
cruelly slaughtered. • Neither was he able to conquer Jerusalem ; 
he obtained for the Christians only the right to visit the city unop- 
posed. Then he, too, started on his return. Owing to his great 
personal valor, he was given the surname, " Lion-hearted." On 
his return, he was unfortunate enough to be taken prisoner by Duke 
Leopold, who delivered him to the emperor. He was compelled to 
suffer a long time in a dungeon, and to redeem his liberty with an 
enormous sum of money. 

Soon after Richard's departure, the noble-minded Saladin died 
{1193 A. D.) Before his death he distributed alms among the 

How did he act concerning the prisoners ? What city did he capture ? 
How did he treat the captives ? How did he dispose of the ransom collected ? 
Did his generosity touch the Christian sovereigns ? Who first took up arms 
against him ? What was his fate ? Who followed then ? Why did the sover- 
eigns not succeed? What insult did Richard inflict on Leopold of Austria? 
How did he treat Saladin's soldiers who had capitulated ? What right did he 
obtain for the pilgrims ? Why was he called " Lion-hearted ? " What misfort- 
une befell him on his return ? What noble act was the last one of Saladin ? 



132 

Christians and the Musselmans, without any distinction as to their 
rehgion. He was so poor when he died that the expenses of his 
funeral had to be paid with a borrowed sum of money. 

The next important crusade was undertaken by Emperor Fred- 
eric II. He had vowed it when he was crowned. His troops, to 
this end, were assembled in Italy, but most of them succumbed 
to an epidemic disease, which also attacked the emperor, and he 
was therefore obliged to defer the promised crusade. However, he 
was excommunicated by Gregory IX., and the anathema was re- 
peated when he really set out after one year (1228 A. D.), without 
having been absolved from it. Scarcely had he landed in Syria 
when the priests got ashore and here also published the papal curse. 
Dissensions arose thereby which divided the army. Frederic there- 
fore concluded a truce with Sultan Kamel (1229 A. D.), by virtue 
of which the latter ceded Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and 
the tract which leads to these towns from the sea. Now the em- 
peror entered Jerusalem joyfully, and himself put the crown upon 
his head, as no priest dared to do it for him. Immediately the 
patriarch here also promulgated the interdict. Frederic had the 
priests, who sided with the patriarch, whipped and driven away. 
Then he returned to Europe, in order to chastise the pope also 
(see § 56). Fifteen years after this Jerusalem was again lost. 

Louis IX., king of France, on account of his piety surnamed the 
Saint, still endeavored to support the tottering cause of the Chris- 
tians. He, together with the foremost noblemen of France, and 
many thousand soldiers, marched to Egypt. First he was favore'd 
by fortune. He conquered the fortified town of Damiette, but as 
he advanced further, he was so hemmed in by the many canals and 
branches of the Nile that he was obliged to surrender his whole 
army (1248 A. D.), to give up Damiette and to pay a ransom of 800,- 
000 pieces in gold for the prisoners. He returned home, and found 
that during his absence his dominion had been- laid waste by internal 
enemies. Notwithstanding the unfortunate termination of his cru- 
sade, he undertook a second one against Tunis (1270 A. D.), in 

Was he rich when he died ? Why did Frederic II. postpone the crusade he 
had vowed ? How did the pope act against him ? Why did he conclude a truce 
with the Sultan ? On what conditions ? Who promulgated the interdict against 
him in Jerusalem ? How did he punish the priests ? Who undertook the next 
crusade ? Who marched with him ? What fortress did he capture ? What was 
the final event of the campaign ? Against what city did he direct his second 
crusade ? Did he succeed ? 



133 

order to fight the Saracens from that side ; but he lost his hfe and 
his army by pestilence. Twenty years later, also Ptolemais (Acre), 
the only place the Christians yet possessed in the Orient, was torn 
from their dominion. 

Between these greater crusades many smaller ones happened. 
Even women and children undertook several of them. One was 
ventured by 30,000 boys (12 13 A. D.) Priests were their leaders. 
They had flattered the children by the illusion that God would work 
a miracle, in order to help them over the Mediterranean Sea ; that 
he would separate its waters, and lead them with dry feet through it, 
as he once had led the Israelites through the Red Sea. Most of the 
children perished miserably during the march ; the rest were sold in 
Egypt into bondage. 

During a certain crusade, it also happened that French crusaders 
founded the so-called new Latin empire. The Grecian emperor 
called on them for aid against his enemies; they came and took 
Constantinople together with the country (1204 A. D.), but retained 
the conquest, and imposed upon the inhabitants the twofold yoke 
of vassalage and popery. Michael PalcRoIogiis, Grecian emperor of 
Nicsea, delivered them again from the tyranny of the foreigners 
(1261 A. D.) 

Europe lost about seven millions of men by the crusades, 
and Palestine was nevertheless gone. Most of the Christians 
engaged in the crusades through fanaticism, excited by the priests, 
especially by the popes. Many others were allured by other vile 
motives, as the popes promised to the crusaders the release of their 
debts, and the indulgence of all, even the vilest sins and crimes. 
However, these wars also had good effects. Through them the 
Arabian culture was diffused throughout Europe, the knowledge of 
nations and countries augmented, the power of the hierarchy 
shaken, the chain of feudalism broken in many places, and the sense 
of freedom awakened. Many serfs received liberty, as their lords 
took up the cross, either alone or accompanied by them. Com- 
merce was especially advanced by the crusades. Entire fleets sailed 

When was the last place in the Orient lost ? What of the crusade of children ? 
How were they deluded by the priests ? What fate did they experience ? Who 
founded the Latin empire ? In what manner ? Who abolished it ? How many 
inhabitants did Europe lose by the crusades ? For what reasons mainly were 
they undertaken ? What good effects did they produce ? What culture was dif- 
fused ? What power shaken ? What service broken ? How was commerce ad- 
vanced ? 



134 

from Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and other maritime, towns of Italy, to 
those distant countries, carrying armies, arms and provisions there, 
and on their return brought the merchandise of Persia and Hin- 
dostan to Europe. By such commerce they acquired great riches 
and power. Besides, the crusades diminished the number of the 
noble families, because many noblemen incurred death through 
them. 



SECOND OHAPTER-HISTORT OP OIVILIZATION. 



^ 61. Constitutions. Feudal Government. Feudal Ser- 
vitude. Magna Charta of England. 
Ordeals. Chivalry. 

In the preceding, but still more so in this and the following 
period, Europe presents a sad view of servitude. The Teutonic 
nations usually seized from the inhabitants of the conquered lands 
half or more of their landed property, and divided it by lot. The 
portions were called " allodia," and were heritable. The sovereigns 
conferred part of the lands which fell to them as their share upon 
their loyal vassals. Such parts were called " feods " (feuds, fees, 
iiefs). In this manner the feudal system and the feudal law sprung 
up. The vassals were obHged to perform either military service, 
when called upon, or contribute certain rents and payments. " The 
inhabitants of the countries were partly noblemen, partly serfs. To 
the former belonged the landlords, the vassals, the high ministerial 
ofificers, and the patricians in the cities. The rest (consequently 
the majority of the people) were serfs (villains). 

The fate of the bondmen was horrible. They were compelled 
to cultivate the estates of their landlords ; their earnings, their body 
and life, their children, everything belonged to the latter. They 
might be killed by them with impunity. Their marriages were not 
consecrated. The slave garment and the shaved head distinguished 
them from the freeman. Nobody was allowed to grant entrance to 
the fugitives. 

England iirst broke the fetters of the feudal system. The 

I 6i. Give the view of the feudal system. Define the vi'ords "allodia" and 
" feods." What were the obligations of the vassals ? What classes of the inhab- 
itants belonged to the noblemen? What was the doom of their majority? What 
was the fate of the bondmen ? With regard to their landlords ? To their chil- 
dren and marriages ? How was their exterior appearance distinguished ? What 
country first broke the fetters of this system ? 



135 

Magna Charta, which King John was compelled to sign (see § 57), 
granted (though almost alone to the nobility and the clergy) the 
most precious rights. By virtue of that document no freeman 
was allowed to be taken prisoner without a lawful decree. In 
trials, the sentence must be pronounced by particular judges, inde- 
pendent from the king. The latter could not impose taxes without 
the permission of the parliament, etc. As John infringed the char- 
ter, guardians were appointed to watch over its proper execution, 
and it was decreed that it should be confirmed by oath by every 
king at his accession, and promulgated to the people twice every 
year. Though it is true that still several kings dared to infringe the 
charter, yet this only conduced to enlarge liberty. In this manner 
Edward I. had to extend the right to allow taxes to the knights and 
citizens of towns. Since his time, the delegates of the counties and 
towns also used to be called to the sessions of the parUament. Thus, 
by degrees, the lower house was created, in which the commons 
first were truly represented. 

In Italy, the constitutions of the Lombard cities, after the con- 
tests against Frederick I. and II., secured freedom to its subjects ; 
Venice, first a democracy, had in later time a doge (691 A. D.), 
then an aristocratic government (11 72 A. D.) the offices of which 
finally became hereditary (1297 A. D.) 

In this and the next period the club-law ruled almost every- 
where in Europe. The noblemen were frequendy highway robbers, 
and their castles dens of thieves, where they would feast and 
carouse. The laws were rude and inefficacious. The ordeals (judg- 
ments of God), such as duels, the ordeal of boiling water, the fire- 
and-water ordeal, etc., settled all questions of right or wrong, the de- 
fendant being obliged to take something out of a boihng kettle, or 
carry a red-hot piece of iron in his hands for some distance, or he 
was flung into a river or pond ; if he sank, he was acquitted, etc.; 
even the judges had to submit to duels. Religious disputes were 
also decided by arms. 

In the midst of such depravity, chivalry was for a long time a 
blessing. It was designed to afford help to the distressed, espe- 

What rights were granted by the Magna Charta to the nobility and clergy ? 
What was decreed when John infringed it ? What was Edward I. obliged to 
grant to the knights and citizens ? What constitutions in Italy were liberal ? 
What of the government of Venice ? Give an account of the club law ; of the 
ordeals of boiling water ; of fire and water ordeals. For what end was chivalry 
designed ? 



136 

cially to women, orphans and pilgrims. The duties attached 
to the squireship prepared for it; tournaments, in which noble- 
minded ladies distributed the meed of praise, invigorated it. In an 
age of darkness and degradation, chivalry developed the character 
of woman, and causing her virtues to be appreciated and honored, 
made her the equal companion of man, and the object of his devotion. 
The religious orders of knighthood, viz., the Order of the 
Knights of St. John, the Order of the Temple, and the Teutonic 
knights, were monastic orders, and obliged their members, especially, 
to fight against the Saracens, to aid poor pilgrims, and to nurse the 
sick. They all originated in Jerusalem. The Knights of St. John 
were in later time called Knights of Rhodes and Malta, because, 
after the loss of Palestine, they had their seat at Rhodes and 
because this island also was conquered by the Turks, at Malta. 

§ 62. Church. Anathema. Interdict. Inquisitional Tri- 
bunal. Canon Law. Celibacy. Popes. 
Gregory VII. Innocent III. 

In Europe, it is true, the Slavonians, Hungarians -and Russians, 
and in Asia the Tartarian tribes were converted to Christianity, but 
its doctrine and spirit remained unknown to them, for they were as 
yet in the lowest degrees of civilization. They were driven to the 
rivers and aspersed with water. Then they were baptized and 
called Christians. Their princes, who had accepted the Christian 
faith before them, commanded them to follow their example, and 
they thoughtlessly obeyed. 

The Roman Church separated from the Grecian. — In the Occi- 
dental Church the Latin language was introduced. The chaffering 
in relics and indulgences, and the number of church festivals in- 
creased. The infidels and heretics, as the non-conformists were 
called, were treated most cruelly. The Jews, too, were often very 
severely persecuted. 

The' most dreadful weapons of the clergy were the anathema, 

What degree prepared for it ? Who, in the tournaments, distributed the 
prizes ? What influence did chivalry exert on the development of womanhood ? 
What were the religious Orders of Knighthood ? What were the obligations of 
their members ? Where did they originate ? What were the Knights of St. John 
called in later times ? \ 62. What kind of Christianity did the newly converted 
nations in Europe and Asia adopt ? What two churches separated ? What lan- 
guage was introduced in the church ? What of relics, indulgences and holydays ? 
How were infidels, heretics and Jews treated ? Which were the most dreadful 
weapons of the clergy ? 



137 

the interdict and the inquisitional tribunal. The anathema deprived 
a man of the enjoyment of all ecclesiastical, civil and natural rights. 
He was thereby unfitted to make contracts. His children could 
dispense with their duty of respect and obedience. Even his hfe 
was at the mercy of every murderer. 

By the interdict the divine service was suspended in entire coun- 
tries. Then no church bell sounded ; the altars were unclothed, 
and even the church doors locked, the marriages contracted on the 
graves, and all public amusements interdicted, even greetings forbid- 
den. These punishments usually were inflicted on princes who 
would not comply with the caprices and ambitious designs of the 
bishops and popes. 

The inquisitio7ial tribunal, that infamous pillory of popery, was 
instituted by Gregory IX. against the Albigenses (1229 A. D.) (see 
§ 57), and soon after directed against all heretics. He committed it to 
the Order of the Dominicans. The object of this tribunal was not 
only to root out heresies, but also pretended sorceries, and even 
philosophical, political and mathematical doctrines. Thus Galileo 
was put into its dungeon, because he had taught the theorem that 
the earth revolves around the sun. 

The courts of the tribunal were held in horrid castles, where the 
prisoners were tortured in subterranean chambers, in order to ex- 
tort from them the confessions which they refused to make sponta- 
neously. At the first degree of torture the tormentors raised them 
to a certain height from the ground, and then suddenly let them fall 
again. At the second degree, their mouth was forcibly opened, a 
cloth put over it, and through it a great quantity of water slowly 
poured into their throat, thereby causing in the unfortunate victims 
the sensation of choking. At the third degree, their feet were slowly 
roasted over a coal-fire. 

The penalties of the sentenced were confiscation of property, 
service on the galleys, life-long imprisonment, and death. This was 
inflicted by racks which tore the joints apart, by wheels breaking the 
bones, by combustion, etc. Many of the rich were adjudged guilty 
simply for the reason that their impeachers and judges were desirous 

Give an aCcount of the anathema and interdict. Who instituted the inquisi- 
tional tribunal? Against what sect was it first directed? To what Order was it 
committed? What were its objects? How were its courts constructed? 
Which was the first degree of torture ? The second ? The third ? What pen- 
alties were inflicted on the sentenced ? In what manner were they put to death ? 



138 

of obtaining their treasures. Combustion in Spain was called auto 
da fe (judicial decree of faith.) On the way to the place of exe- 
cution the condemned wore the Sanbenito, a peculiar dress, on which 
they were represented as burning in the flames, and surrounded by 
devils ; a high cap, painted all over with demons ; they also had a 
rope around the neck and carried a burning candle in the hand. 
In this attire they were paraded in the streets, and had to pass by a 
stage on which the king and his court-officers and court-ladies were 
seated. The sentenced victims were finally brought to the place of 
execution, where funeral piles were raised. There they were for the 
last time summoned to forswear their faith, and if they persevered 
in it, put upon the wood-piles. At a given signal these were kin- 
dled, and the unhappy victims sloAvly burned to death. Their tor- 
ments frequently lasted many hours; sometimes their skin burst, and 
through the scalds the intestines protruded. If the executed were 
authors, their writings were burned at the same time. 

This infernal tribunal was established in most of the countries 
of Europe, and even in Asia and America. It especially flourished 
in ^ Spain and Portugal, in France and Italy. In America many 
Indians were burned, because they would not be converted to 
Christianity. No rank, no sex, no age was exempt from the power 
of the tribunal; even kings and bishops were subject to it. 

Most of the victims of the Inquisition were sacrificed in the 
Spanish dominions during the governments of Ferdinand the Cath- 
olic and of Philip II. Isabella, Ferdinand's wife, had promised to 
her confessor to exterminate all heretics, should the royal crown fall 
to her share. She became queen. Now all the Jews and Moors, 
who at that time formed the greater portion of the inhabitants in 
Spain, had to consent to be baptized or to leave the country ; but as 
many of them who submitted to baptism secretly remained attached 
to their former creed, she induced her husband to establish the 
Inquisitional Tribunal. In this country 10,000 men were burned 
alive in the course of eighteen years. Even more dreadful was 
the rage of Philip II., who persecuted the Protestants in the Nether- 

Describe the ceremonies of combustion. What was the Sanbenito ? Where 
were they paraded ? In whose presence were they burned ? What of the 
' funeral piles ? How long did their torments last ? What were the effects caused 
by the flames ? In what countries was tlae tribunal established ? Were any 
persons exempt from its power ? What two kings caused the most combus- 
tions ? What of the Jews and Moors in Spain ? How many persons were 
burned by Ferdinand and Isabella ? ' 



189 

lands (see § 79). The last case of combustion happened in 1782, in 
Seville. It has been computed that the number of all individuals 
who have been burned since the institution of the Inquisition, in 
different countries of the earth, amounts to nine millions. 

The clergy, during this period, was the most powerful caste in 
the State ; but its members indulged in ambition, luxury and indo- 
lence. Even the bishops carried on feuds, or were used to hunting 
and military exercises. Frequently priests, returning from huntings 
went immediately to church, accompanied by their hounds, in 
order to say mass. The monks became wild and savage ; many 
clergymen did not even know how to read. The popes in particu- 
lar were greedy and desirous of enlarging their dominions, ambi- 
tious, cruel and perfidious. They shunned no fraud, if it served to 
increase their authority; e. g., they frequently appealed to the 
Canon Law, a collection partly of fictitious or adulterated laws of 
the oldest synods and Roman bishops, and partly of later papal 
edicts. They introduced it as'the statute-book of the church. By 
it they were declared to be the sovereigns of the church, the bish- 
ops being only their representatives. 

With Gregory VII. (1073-1085 A. D.), the universal dominion 
of the popes begins. He demanded of the bishops an oath, similar 
to that of allegiance, and declared most countries to be fiefs of the 
Roman See. He asserted that the papal power resembles the sun ; 
the royal, the moon; as the moon gets her hght from the sun^ 
in the same manner emperors and kings do not exist, but by per- 
mission of the pope; consequently those are obhged to obey him. 
He deprived the sovereigns of the right to nominate the prelates of 
the church, and to invest them with tracts of land, and usurped it 
for himself. Moreover, he instituted celibacy (the unmarried state of 
life) of priests, forbidding them to contract matrimony, and finally 
separating those who had married from their wives and children. As 
in the former ages of the church priests were not forbidden to 
marry, and even in Gregory's age many of them had wives, they 
opposed the introduction of celibacy, causing even revolts against 

How many (as it is reported) in all countries of the earth ? Which was the 
most powerful caste ? In what exercises would even bishops indulge ? What 
of the morafs of the clergy and monks ? How did the popes increase their 
authority ? What were the contents of the canon law ? With what pope does 
the universal dominion of the popes begin ? What comparison did Gregory 
draw between his and the royal power ? What did he institute ? How did he 
use married priests ? 



140 

the pope; however, he carried his prohibition through by dint of 
force. 

Next to Gregory, Innocent III. (1198-1216 A. D.) was the 
most imperious and most powerful pope. During the war which 
Otto of Brunswick waged against PhiUp of Suabia, he contrived to 
augment considerably the papal dominions ; he deprived the laymen 
of the chalice of the Holy Supper ; he censured them severely for 
reading the Bible, introduced the auricular confession by law and 
set the interdict at work. Proof of his cruelty is the persecution of 
the Albigenses (see § 57). 

§ 63. The Arts and Sciences. Troubadours and Minne- 
singers. Commerce. 

From the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century the density 
of ignorance still increased; the art of writing was almost lost. All 
schools were in the hands of clergymen. Fmally, the universities 
sprung up, which again diffused some enhghtenment. The majority 
of their scholars were full grown men, and often of high rank, such 
as archbishops and cardinals. The most celebrated were the univer- 
sities of Bologna (for science of laws), of Salerno (for medicine), 
and of Paris and Oxford (for theology and philosophy). Still, 
philosophy was the hand-maid of the church, obliged to agree with 
her dogmas, however absurd they might be. The poesy of chivalry 
was in a most flourishing condition during the reign of the Hohen- 
stauffen. Alphonso X. of Castile caused astronomical tables, which 
are very important for modern astronomy, to be constructed by 
Moorish and Jewish mathematicians, expending enormous sums 
for this purpose. Generally, he paid and rewarded scholars very 
liberally. Among the greatest scholars were Otto of Freisingen and 
Albertus Magnus. The former understood all the languages and 
sciences of his age. He wrote a universal history in which the 
achievements of Frederic I. are related at large. Albertus excelled 
in natural sciences and mechanics. His writings fill not less than 
twenty-one volumes in folio. 

What of Innocent III. ? What did he introduce ? What did he considerably 
augment ? Of what did he deprive the laymen ? What sect did he cruelly per- 
secute ? Which was the darkest time of civilization ? What institutes finally 
diffused some enlightenment? Who attended the universities? For what 
science was that of Bologna renowned ? Palermo ? Paris and Oxford ? How 
did Alfonso of Castile promote astronomy ? What of Otto of Freisingen and 
Albertus Magnus ? 



141 

The troubadours in France, and the epic poets and minnesingers 
in southern Germany, were efficacious in creating a love for the 
national poesy and the cultivation of language. The songs of the 
troubadours were frequently set to music. Every well-bred man, even 
sovereigns, attempted to write such poetry. Emulative singing, 
at which ladies distributed the prize, took place. The art of heroic 
poesy and of the minnesingers was principally cultivated in Suabia, 
Franconia, Austria and Switzerland. 

The oldest and grandest epical poem of the German language is 
"■ der Nibeluiige noth " (the distress of the Nibelunge.) It originally 
consisted of several separate national songs, which, at the end 
of the twelfth century, were connected into a whole. More 
recent epic poyets are : Wolfram von Eshenbach, Hartmann von 
der Au, etc. The best minnelays were composed by Walter von 
der Vogelweide. All poets were also singers. They sung with harp 
accompaniment, the harp being the favorite instrument of the mid- 
dle ages. Most of them belo'nged to the lower nobility. They 
wandered from court to court, and were present at coronation days, 
at assemblies of princes, and at wedding feasts. The presents they 
received consisted of money and new garments.. The emperors of 
Hohenstauf, the landgraves of Thuringia, and the dukes of Austria 
were most liberal to them. 

Concerning industry and commerce, they could not prosper in 
the German countries, by reason of their wretched political condi- 
tion. To the lord of the coast the stranded mariner was forfeited 
with all his property ; even the goods of the wagon which broke in 
the public highway belonged, in some places, to the ruler of the 
country. For some time the Normans, principally, carried on com- 
merce. The Italian cities, especially since the crusades, did a lively 
trade, which extended as far as Siberia, India and China. They 
transported silk stuffs, which they wove from home-spun silk, and 
sugar, to Southern and Western Europe. They carried on the prin- 
cipal trade for some time even in Central Europe, and only the 
Jews emulated with them here. To the Italian cities, not to the 

What of the troubadours and minnesingers in France and Germany ? Which 
is the oldest and grandest German epopee ? Other epic poets ? Who composed 
the best minnelays ? Which was the favorite musical instrument of the middle 
ages ? What presents did the poets receive ? What of industry and commerce ? 
To whom did the property of stranded persons belong ? Who carried on com- 
merce in Northern Europe and Italy ? To what cities is Europe indebted for 
liberty ? 



142 

sovereigns, therefore, is Europe indebted for the advantages of com- 
merce, industry and Hberty. In this period, too, commerce and 
trades were in a most flourishing condition among the Arabs. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies. — Frederic I. His conduct — i, in Italy («) against Arnold of 
Brescia and the cities (Romej, (/;) against the Lombard cities and the popes ; 
2, in Asia. — Frederic II. His efficacy — I, in Germany; 2, in Italy, (a) against 
the Lombard cities, {b) against the popes ; 3, in Asia. — Gregory VII. I. His 
domineering, («) in general, {Ij) especially in Germany (Henry IV.) 2. Means 
employed for this purpose. — Innocent III. I. His imperious conduct in Italy 
and England. 2. His despotism in religious matters, {a) genei-ally ; (^) against 
the Albigenses. Give a description of the crusade against Saladin. Who was, 
in this period, the most excellent sovereign in Germany ? Of the Mohamme- 
dans ? Which sovereign became most remarkable by his quarrels w^ith the popes ? 
Who vv^ere the founders of nevs^ dynasties in France and England ? What sov- 
ereigns engaged in the crusades ? When and how long did Gregory VII. rule? 
When and by whom was the Inquisitional Tribunal established ? When and by 
whom was the Magna Charta granted ? When did the contest of the Lombard 
■cities for liberty commence, and how many years did it last ? How many centu- 
ries passed during the crusades ? When and by whom was the Latin empire 
founded, and how long did it subsist ? 



SIXTH PERIOD. 



From tF|e End of tl^e Crusades to tl^e Discovery of Anqer- 

ica, Decay of tlqe Imperial Power, oF Papacy 

aqd Churc^^, Frorn 1300 to 1492 A, D. 



FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOET. 



\ 64. Germany. Rudolph of Hapsburg. "War of the 
Hussites. Maximilian I. 

With Rudolph of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, proprietor of 
rnany estates, a happier period again began for Germany (1273 
A. D.) He declared it to be his calling to " protect peace and 
right, the most precious of all heavenly gifts; " and he answered 

What nation, in Asia, also flourished by commerce and trades ? With what 
€mperor began a happier period for Germany ? 



143 

for it more faithfully than any other emperor since Henry I. Forth- 
with he proclaimed, at the first imperial diet, general public peace, 
which he also maintained with strength and rigor. In all prov- 
inces he presided himself at the tribunals. Thuringia resembled a 
den of robbers. He was employed there a whole year to establish 
peace. As robbery and warfare recommenced, he returned and 
punished the guilty with inexorable severity. He caused sixty-six 
castles of robbers to be destroyed, and the high-born robbers who 
were caught to be beheaded. In the same way he dealt in Suabia 
and Franconia, and along the Rhine, where, in one year, he laid in 
ruins more than seventy haunts of noble robbers. In this manner 
he re-established tranquillity and peace. In the campaigns he 
undertook for that purpose, the herdsmen of the forest cantons 
especially aided him. 

His manner of living was moderate, and he despised splendor 
and pomp. In war-time he mended his doublet with his own 
hand. When his army once was in want of provisions, he pulled 
up a turnip from a field and ate it raw ; the army followed his 
example without murmuring, and after the turnips had been con- 
sumed, he called his men to combat, saying : " If we gain victory, 
we shall have plenty of provisions ; but if we are defeated, they will 
also give food and drink to the captives." He was also grateful for 
any act of kindness rendered. A citizen of Ziirich had saved his 
life by endangering his own. As he entered the imperial hall in 
Mentz, Rudolph rose from the throne and gave him friendly and 
respectful salutation. His faithfulness in keeping his promises 
became proverbial. But he, too, already showed indications of the 
greediness for aggrandizement peculiar to his house, for he married 
his six daughters to the most powerful sovereigns, and wanted even 
to make the regal dignity heritable in his family; but to this the 
German rulers did not consent. He was also weak enough to rat- 
ify the usurped possessions of the popes. 

His son, Albert of Austria, was hated for his tyranny and covet- 
ousness. His ward, John of Suabia, demanded from him his law- 

What heavenly gifts did he declare most precious ? What did he proclaim in 
the first diet? How did he dispense justice, especially in Thuringia, Suabia 
and Franconia ? How did he punish the high-born robbers ? Who aided him 
in his campaigns ? What was the course of his life ? Give examples of it. 
Mention an instance of his gratitude. What of his faithfulness ? What fault 
had he in common with his house ? Whose possessions did he ratify ? Why 
was Albert of Austria hated ? 



144 

ful heritage, but without success. The emperor kept him in sus- 
pense by vain promises, whereby the former was so enraged that, 
assisted by some congenial friends, he slew him. The children of 
the emperor took terrible revehge on the guilty and innocent. 

After Albrecht, Henry VII. followed (1308 A. D.), who deprived 
the Lombard cities of their liberty, and subjected them to his 
dominion. 

Under the reign of Sigismond IV. the great synod in Constance 
was held, by whose order John Huss was burned (see § 69). From 
his ashes arose one of the most dreadful religious wars ( 1419-1433 A. 
D.) His adherents, the Hussites in Bohemia'and Moravia, already 
exasperated because they were forbidden to confess the doctrine of 
their teacher, and to use the chalice at the Lord's Supper, and 
now enraged by his horrible execution, closely united themselves at 
the town of Kniss, upon a mountain which they called Tabor, where 
they also founded a town of the same name, and celebrated the 
divine service. Their general was a nobleman called Ziska (the 
one-eyed). The pope summoned all Christendom to wage a cru- 
sade against them, and emperor Sigismond came to" Prague with an 
immense army (1422 A. D.); but Ziska repelled him. A second 
army was also defeated, and the emperor had to flee from Bohemia. 
After Ziska's death, the two Procops became the generals of the 
Hussites. They also vanquished several imperial armies, and spread 
flames of war over Germany. Everywhere terror preceded them. 
Finally, the council in Basil invited them to negotiations. Procop 
the Great made his appearance there at the head of a large em- 
bassy. The synod granted to the moderate party of the Hussites 
the chalice and the free sermon. They would have obtained still 
more important rights, if they had lived in concord instead of 
quarreling with each other. 

With Albert II. the imperial dignity returned to the house of 
Hapsburg, and remained with it till that ■ dignity was abolished 
(1806 A. D.) Maximilian I. (1493-1519 A. D.) succeeded in 
establishing perpetual public peace by which the club-law was 
abolished unconditionally, and oppression and rapine were made to 



Who killed him ? Why ? Who took revenge ? , Who deprived the Lombard 
cities of their liberty ? What war desolated Germany under Sigismond IV. ? 
How was it caused ? Give a narrative of it. Who were the leaders of the Hus- 
sites ? What did the council of Basil .grant them ? Who established perpetual 
public peace ? 



145 

yield forever to the authority of law. At a general diet held at 
Worms, the several States subscribed to it (1495 ^- ^•) 

§ 63. Switzerland. Combats of the Swiss Confederates 

for Liberty. Battles at Sempach, Granson and 

Murten. Arnold Winkelried. 

In the aboriginal cantons (Schwytz, Uri and Unterwalden) the 
inhabitants, being simple herdsmen, had maintained their independ- 
ence, and the three cantons were united by ancient friendship. They 
lived directly under the protection of the German empire. Emperor 
Rudolph had protected their rights ; but his son Albert refused to 
confirm them, and bade the cantons to submit to the dominion of his 
dynasty. When they declined to do so, he appointed Austrian 
governors for their country. These, and the noblemen who were 
settled in the land, oppressed them. Therefore, in Riitli, a meadow 
on the lake of Lucerne, 33 men delegated by them, swore to restore 
the ancient liberty and to humble the insolent nobility. When 
William Tell, a skilled archer of the canton of Uri, whom (as the 
legend goes) the cruel governor Gessler had forced to shoot at an 
apple placed on the head of his own son, had killed Gessler, the 
inhabitants expelled the governors and knights, destroyed their 
castles, and renewed their ancient confederation for the purpose of 
maintaining and defending their old liberties. 

Duke Leopold could not forget that they had thrown off the 
yoke of his father. He led a well-armed host against them, but they 
met him fearlessly at Morgarten, and the best part of the nobility 
sank from the blows of the herdsmen. Even Leopold barely 
escaped death. Later, the cities Lucerne, Ziirich, Zug, Glarus and 
Berne, in spite of the violent protest of Austria, joined the league of 
the three forest cantons (1332-1353 A. D.) 

Duke Leopold IIL, in conjunction with many noble and eccle- 
siastical lords, wanted to strike the main blow against the freedom 
of the confederates. Near Sempach they commenced the attack 
(1386 A. D.) In the first lines stood several thousand knights, clad 

§ 65. What three cantons maintained their independence ? Under whose 
protection did they live? To what dominion did Emperor Albert bid them 
submit ? What governors did he appoint ? How did they govern ? What did 
the delegates of the cantons swear ? What of Governor Gessler ? What were the 
consequences of his tyranny ? Who killed him? W^hy? Whom did the can- 
tons expel ? What did they renew ? What of Dul^e Leopold and of the battle 
at Morgarten ? What cities j oined the league ? Give an account of the battle of 
Sempach. 

(10) 



146 

in iron armor. The undaunted confederates, though only mustering 
1,400 men, rushed upon the iron men, but could not break their 
ranks. They were already in danger of being out-flanked and 
crushed by the numerous enemies, when Arnold Winkelried cried : 
" I will make way for liberty ! Dear confederates, take care of my 
wife and children ! " He then, with arms extended wide, ran into 
the midst of the hostile spears, grasped as many as he could, and 
pierced through he fell, pulHng them down with the weight of his 
body. The confederates darted over his corpse into the opened 
breach, dashed the knights to the ground with their maces, and 
gained a complete victory. Leopold himself was slain. The 
humbled Austria concluded peace with the confederates. 

Soon after followed the glorious combats of the herdsmen of 
Appenzell against the abbots of St. Gall, who ruled them severely 
and capriciously. Tired of their tyranny, the herdsmen expelled 
their governors and put the troops of the abbots to flight (1403 A. D.) 
The abbots asked Frederic of Austria for help, which the latter 
afforded. But the herdsmen, led by the brave count Rudolph Wer- 
denberg, who, like a common herdsman, lived with them, fought 
valiantly against the enemies; even their wives and daughters, 
dressed like shepherds, appeared in arms. The enemies fled in 
wild confusion, and were entirely defeated. Cursing the unhappy 
issue of the war, Frederic returned home, and the inhabitants of 
Appenzell became independent of the dominion of the abbots. 

When Charles the Bold hesitated to restore Alsace to Emperor 
Frederic III., according to contract, and besides caused the inhab- 
itants to be oppressed by his governor, the former expelled his gar- 
rison, and as he advanced with an army, they allied with the duke of 
Lorraine and the confederates. Charles took possession of Lorraine, 
and, at the head of 60,000 men, marched against the confederates 
(1476 A. D.) In vain they offered him peace, and their alliance; 
he said that he wanted to chastise the peasants. The confederates 
attacked him courageously at Granson, where he could hardly 
resist their vanguard. But as he saw their main forces drawing 
near, he cried, alarmed : "Alas ! if before a handful of men tired 



Who devoted his life to his country ? What success followed the battle ? 
Describe the glorious days of the herdsmen of Appenzell. "V^Tio was their 
leader ? What of their wives and daughters ? ' Of Frederic ? Of the dominion 
of the abbots ? Why did the inhabitants of Alsace ally with the Swiss confed- 
erates ? What did the latter offer to Charles ? What was his intention in mak- 
ing war on the confederates ? Give an account of the battle at Granson. Wliat 
did Charles say as their main forces drew near ? What of his soldiers ? 



147 

us, what shall become of us now ? " A panic seized his soldiers ; 
they took to flight. It was in vain that he opposed himself to them ; 
they carried him along. He lost his camp, abounding in riches 
(1476 A. D.) Three months after this defeat he ventured a second 
battle at Murten. The confederates implored the help of God 
before the combat. As during the prayers the sun pierced the 
clouds, one of their commanders cried : "Confederates ! On ! 
See, God gives us light for victory." They began cheerfully to 
fight. The duke, whose troops were discouraged, and fought only 
because forced, was totally defeated. He had scarcely time to flee, 
a few knights accompanying him. In this combat he lost 15,000 
men (1476 A. D.) The corpses were thrown into large lime-pits, 
their bones collected and preserved in a chapel in memory of his 
defeat. The next year he was vanquished once more at Nancy, 
and slain by his pursuers in a swamp (1477 A. D.) 

The bloody Suabian war gloriously concludes this epoch of 
Swiss history. Emperor Maximilian I. threatened the confederates 
with war because, preferring Uberty, they refused to have their land 
incorporated with the German empire. He actually commenced 
war, as they formed a defensive alliance with the confederates of 
Grisons (1499 ^- D.) During eight months the emperor lost more 
than 20,000 men in eight battles. In one (at Malserhaide) Bene- 
dict Fontana first scaled the hostile bulwark. He went on fighting, 
even when his intestines protruded from his wounds, crying: "Go 
on, confederates ! Do not care for my death ! Save liberty ! If 
you are vanquished to-day, you leave perpetual servitude to your 
children!" He died like a hero. Maximilian was compelled to 
conclude peace, and the independence of Switzerland from Ger- 
many was established forever (1499 A. D.) 

A sad fact, at the end of this period, are the mercenary wars 
which the Swiss, hired by foreign sovereigns, waged, especially 
either for or against France and Milan, som.etimes even for both 
parties, though they fought in these wars also with their usual valor. 

Of himself? What did Charles lose in this battle-? Give some circum- 
stances of the battle at Murten. How great was the loss of the duke ? What 
of the corpses of the killed? Where did Charles lose his life? What war con- 
cluded the Swiss history in this period ? Why did Maximilian wage war against 
the Swiss ? How long did the war last ? How many men did the emperor lose? 
What of Benedict Fontana? Delineate his exploit. What of the mercenary 
wars of the Swiss ? 



148 

§ 66. France and England. Philip the Fair. Abolish- 
ment of the Order of the Templars. English- 
French National War. Wars of the 
Two Roses. 

Philip IV., king of France, surnamed the Fair, was a scourge of 
the popes. Boniface VIII. forbade him to assess the clergy, but as 
the king nevertheless carried his will into execution, sent a bull 
wherein he declared himself to be the supreme judge of the king, 
France being a papal fief. Philip ordered the papal letter to be 
burned at an assembly of the States- General. Then the pope 
excommunicated him, and dispensed his subjects from their oath of 
allegiance. The king held another assembly of the States, which 
protested against all papal decrees (1303 A. D.) In order to chas- 
tise the pope yet more severely, he intended to have him seized 
secretly, and conducted to France. Boniface was suddenly attacked 
in Anagni, put on the back of a miserable nag, which had neither 
bridle nor saddle, and imprisoned. The people, however, delivered 
him and carried him to Rome ; but he was so much enraged by the 
suffered insult that he dashed his head to pieces on the wall of his 
room. Philip then had Clemens V., by birth a Frenchman, elected 
pope, because he hoped that, being a native, he would be more 
supple. In order that he might rule him the more easily, he bound 
him by the condition that he should take up his residence in France. 
From that time, during seventy years, Avignon was the seat of the 
popes (1307-1377 A. D.) 

Through covetousness, Philip attained also the abolishment of 
the Order of the Templars. Upon the same day all knights of the 
Temple in France were seized ; then, under the pretext of having 
committed secret crimes and vices, put to the rack, and forced to 
make false confessions. Fifty-nine of them, and James Molay, their 
Grand Master, were burned by a slow fire (13 10 A. D.) In the 
hour of death they retracted their confessions. Molay himself had 
never declared himself to be guilty. The king confiscated the large 
dominions of the Order, and divided the booty with the pope, who 
abolished the Order of the Templars also in the other countries. 

§ 66. State the difference which disunited Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. 
Who sided with the king? What did the pope declare in his bull ? What then 
of the bull ? What intention did Philip form to further chastise the pope ? Did 
he succeed ? How did the pope end his life ? Whom did Philip cause to be 
elected pope ? Why ? Where did the popes then reside ? How long ? What 
Order did Philip cause to be abolished? What \was his motive? Describe the 
proceedings against the Templars. 



149 

With the sons of PhiUp the Fair, the first hneage of the house 
of Capet became extinct ; then the Hneage of Valois followed 
(1328 A. D.) Philip IV. was its next male relation; besides the 
States- General declared in his favor; he became king. But Edward 
III., king of England, and son of the daughter of Philip the Fair, 
also laid claim to the throne, and commenced one of the bloodiest 
wars ever fought, which lasted more than a hundred years (1330- 
1453 A. D.) Phihp and his son John fought with very bad fortune 
against Edward and his valiant son, who, from his armor, was called 
the Black Prince. The French suffered terrible defeats at Sluis, in 
Flanders, by sea (1340 A. D.); at Cressy, in Picardy, and at Poi- 
tiers (1356 A. D.) John himself was taken prisoner. He obtained 
his liberty, in fact, on condition that he would pay three miUions of 
gold florins ; but, as France was not able to raise this sum, and as 
his son, who, meanwhile, was prisoner in his stead, ran away, the 
father voluntarily returned into captivity, in which he died (1364 
A. D.) Under Charles VI., a youth of only twelve years, the dukes 
of Orleans and Burgundy contended for the regency. Henry V. 
of England, whose juvenile life was turbulent and dissipated, after __ 
his accession laid aside youthful pleasures and devoted all his ener- 
gies to a wise government of his kingdom. He revived the EngHsh 
claim to France, and passed over into Normandy with 30,000 men. 
After his army had been reduced by a contagious disease to 11,000, 
he met and defeated the French army of 50,000 men in the battle 
at Agincourt, killing 10,000 and taking 14,000 prisoners, among 
whom were many of the most eminent princes of the realm (1415 
A. D.) ' The duke of Burgundy, and even the king's mother, allied 
with him. Henry married Catherine, the daughter of Charles, and 
was to succeed to the throne on the death of her father, while in 
the meantime he was to govern the kingdom as regent. But he did 
not live to wear the crown of France, and the helpless Charles sur- 
vived him only two months. France was now divided between two 

How many were burned ? When did they retract ? What of James Molay ? 
Who divided the booty with the king ? What two kings laid claim to the throne 
of France ? By what reasons ? How long did the war last ? Who was suc- 
cessful ? Where were the French defeated ? What was the fate of King John ? 
What of Henry V. ? What was his j uvenile character ? How did he conduct 
himself as a man ? What claim did he revive ? How large was his army first ? 
How large after the epidemic ? How large was the French army ? Where was 
it vanquished ? How many were taken prisoners ? Who allied with .Henry ? 
Whom did he marry ? When would he succeed to the throne of France ? Be- 
tween which monarchs was France then divided ? 



150 

rival monarchs, Henry VI. and Charles VII. In this dilemma, an 
obscure country girl of Dom Remy, in Lorraine, Joan of Arc^ 
saved her country. Divinely commissioned (as her credulous age 
believed), she put herself at the head of a selected troop, and suc- 
ceeded in furnishing provisions for the besieged city of Orleans. 
Now her holy mission was thought to be certain ; the courage of 
the French was aroused again, and the English were put into such 
a fright that they raised the siege of the city. New bands gathered 
from all parts of the country around the flag of the heroine. The 
enemies fled wherever she made her appearance ; they were every- 
where vanquished, and many towns were re-taken. The maiden 
led Charles VII. to Rheims, and crowned him (1429 A. D.) But 
the next year, in a sally, she was separated from her band, and taken 
prisoner by the Burgundians, then summoned to an ecclesiastical 
tribunal, which, to please the English, declared her to be guilty of 
sorcery, and caused her to be burned. In later times the memory 
of the heroine was honored by a monument, and by conferring the 
rank of nobility upon her relations. Finally, the duke of Burgundy 
was reconciled to Charles. The English were vanquished; their 
brave General Talbot fell in battle, and the war ceased without a for- 
mal treaty of peace (1453 A. D.) Of all their conquests, the Eng- 
lish retained only Calais, 

In England, the government of the house of Lancaster 
commenced with Henry IV., duke of Lancaster, and a descend- 
ant of the third son of Edward III. Under his grandson, 
Henry VI., who was only nine months old when he inherited 
the kingdom, the realm experienced all the horrors of govern- 
ments administered by guardians. One chief after another seized 
upon the regency, and one of the most sanguinary civil wars broke 
out — the War of the Two Roses, so called from the symbols of 
the parties. During thirty years (1452-1485 A. D.), not a day 
passed in England without slaughter and assassination. Eighty 
princes of the royal blood were killed; seven or eight battles 
fought, and hundreds of thousands of the citizens perished in the 

What maiden saved France ? Give an account of her exploits. Where did 
she crown the king ? What misfortune then befell her? Bywhat tribunal was 
she condenmed ? What was her fate ? How was her memory later honored ? 
What were the further events of the war ? How was it finished ? What place 
did the English retain ? Why did both Henry VI. and Richard of York claim 
the English throne? How was the government administered when the former 
was a child? What was the condition of England during the civil war? Who 
commenced it ? Why is it called the War of the Two Roses ? 



151 

contests. Duke Richard of York, also a grandson of Edward III., 
believing himself to have a nearer title to the throne than Henry, 
set himself up for regent of the realm. The royal partisans (wear- 
ing a red rose) opposed him, and Richard, supported by his parti- 
sans (wearing a white rose), commenced civil war. He and one of 
his sons were killed ; but Henry and his son met with the same fate, 
and Edward IV., another son of Richard, was proclaimed king. 
Edward's sons were murdered by their uncle, Richard III., and 
the whole nation was alienated from Richard by his crimes. The 
claims of the Lancaster family were revived by Henry Tudor, earl 
of Richmond, and at the decisive battle of Bosworth field, Richard 
was defeated and slain (1485 A. D.) The earl of Richmond was 
proclaimed king, Avith the title of Henry VII. His marriage, soon 
after, with the princess Elizabeth, heiress of the house of York, 
united the rival claims of York and Lancaster in the Tudor family, 
and put an end to the civil contests. 

§ 67. The-Turks in Europe. Conquest of Constantinople. 

Osman, a Turkish emir in Asia Minor, subdued the larger part 
of anterior Asia (about 1300 A. D.) His successor obtained a 
foothold in the Greek empire, selected the most vigorous young men 
from the vanquished Christian nations, and formed from them, by a 
military education, the corps of the Janizaries. Bajazet I. enlarged 
his conquests, and vanquished the united Christians — Greeks, 
Hungarians, Germans, French and English, Emperor Sigismund 
being at their head (1396 A. D.), but was defeated himself, and 
taken prisoner by Tamerlane (1402 A. D.) Soon the Grecian em- 
perors had only a few pieces of land left besides the capital, and 
were compelled to pay an annual tribute. In order to gain the help 
of the Occident, they were willing to acknowledge the pope as the 
head of the Grecian church, but vainly; they were left to their fate. 
Mohammed II., resolving to establish his residence in Constan- 
tinople, declared war to the Emperor Constantine XL During fifty 

What of Richard and his son ? Of Henry and his son ? Who, after their 
death, was proclaimed king? By whom were Edward's sons murdered? 
Why was the nation alienated from Richard ? By whom were the claims of 
the Lancaster family revived ? How did Richard perish ? How were the rival 
claims of the two houses united ? § 67. What of Osman ? Where did his 
successor gain a foothold ? What corps did he form ? Whom did Baj azet I. 
vanquish ? By whom was he defeated ? What of the territory of the Grecian 
emperors? Were they aided by the Occidental Christians?. Who declared war 
to Constantine XI. ? 



152 

days the city defied all assaults and blockading machines ; at last the 
walls were scaled (1453 A. D.) Constantine, arms in hand, met 
with a praiseworthy death ; the Christian inhabitants were reduced 
to slavery, the splendid church of St. Sophia transformed into a 
mosque, and Constantinople set up as the capital of the new empire. 



SECOND OHAPTEE- HISTORY OP CIVILIZATION. 



I 68. Condition of Constitutions. Law. Secret Criminal 

Tribunal'. 

The power of the German emperors waned more and more, 
and sometimes there was no head of the empire ; more frequently it 
existed only nominally. Then the several countries were obhged to 
seek protection from their own sovereigns. In this way the power of 
the latter increased; still it was limited by the States- General, 
because they needed their consent in order to collect new taxes, to 
form alliances, and to declare war. The emperors Were, at the 
diets of the empire, as it were^ the presidents of the assembly of 
the princes. 

In Switzerland the forest-cantons and the cities were free; the 
rest of the inhabitants were subjects, in some places even serfs. In 
Polonia and Hungaria the nobility governed; the peasants were 
slaves, who might even be killed by their lords on a fine of a few 
dollars. 

The lawless condition of the former period was still prevailing in 
Germany ; the noblemen, especially, still perpetrated rapine and 
murder, attacked in ambush wagons and ships, and invaded the 
boundaries of the lands. Torture, boiling and burning were general 
means of punishment, but neither were efficacious. It was an ex- 
traordinary private court of justice, called "Fehmgericht," which, in 
some degree, checked the anarchy. It exerted its power in secret, 
and numbered 100,000 members. The first chief justice was the 
archbishop of Cologne; in later time the emperor himself. Terri- 

Give an account of the siege and fate of the emperor and the inhabitants. 
What of Constantinople ? ^ 68. In what manner did the power of the different 
sovereigns in Germany increase ? By whom was it limited ? Why ? What 
were the emperors at the diets ? Who was free in Switzerland ? What of the 
rest of the inhabitants ? Who governed in Polonia and Hungaria ? What was 
the fate of the peasants ? What condition of the former period was still prevail- 
ing ? What of the noblemen ? Of the means of punishment ? Give a descrip- 
tion of the " Fehmgericht." What was the number of its members ? Who was 
Chief Justice? 



153 

ble oaths obliged the members to secrecy and absolute obedience. 
They accorded neither pardon nor appeal. Their sentence pur- 
ported nothing but death, and was immediately executed after having 
seized the criminal, the judges hanging him on the next tree. In 
order to indicate that the secret tribunal had passed sentence, they 
stuck a knife close by. A victim seldom escaped their vigilance. 
Many crimes were prevented or punished by this tribunal, but some, 
at least, were also perpetrated in its name. After the establishment 
of a better administration of justice and of public peace, it ceased 
to exist. 

^ 69. Chiareh. Wycliffe. John Huss. The Popes. Schism 
of the ChUreh. Synod of Constance. 

The public morals were barbarous and corrupt ; cruelty and 
debauchery generally prevailed, even among the clergy. To this evil 
were also added the belief in witches and ghosts, exorcisms, persecu- 
tions of the infidels and heretics. The Jews, e. g.^ were generally 
ill-treated, even by the magistrates ; their testimony against Chris- 
tians was null and void ; they were debarred from acquiring landed 
property ; their children were excluded from the pubUc schools; in 
larger towns they were confined to special districts, and forbidden on 
pain of capital punishment to educate a Christian child in their 
faith, or to marry a Christian maid. 

/ John Wycliffe, professor of theology in England, who has been 
called the morning star of the reformation, was excommunicated 
and suspended, because he censured the popes and monastic Orders, 
and admitted the Bible alone as the rule of Christian faith. The 
pope insisted on his being brought to trial as a Jieretic, but he was 
effectually protected by the English nobility. { He translated the 
Bible into the language of his country, and continued, till he died 
{1385 A. D.), to teach with candid courage. Some of his disciples 
were burned, others exiled. The latter propagated his doctrine in 
Germany and Bohemia. 

What were their obligations ? What sort of sentence did the court pass ? 
What was the manner of executing it ? Give both sides of the effect of the 
tribunal. \ 69. What of the public morals ? What other evils were added to 
this ? How were the Jews treated ? What of their testimony ? Of their right 
of possession ? Of the education of their children ? Of their dwelling places 
in the larger towns ? When was capital punishment inflicted upon them ? Who 
was John Wycliffe ? What was he called ? Why was he excommunicated ? 
What did the pope want to do ? Who protected Wycliffe ? What did he trans- 
late ? What was the fate of his disciples ? Where did they propagate his doc- 
trine ? Who was John Huss, and what was he teaching ? 



154 

In the latter country, soon after, John Huss, professor of theology 
in Prague, being imbued Avith Wycliffe's spirit, whose books he had 
assiduously read, began teaching. His writings and sermons were 
anathematized. However, even the anathema of the pope did not 
diminish the power which he exercised over the people. He 
burned the papal bull of indulgence amid great tumult. Large 
crowds accompanied him, and listened to the sermons he delivered 
in the open air. 

He was summoned to the synod of Constance, at which Emperor 
Sigismund, Pope John XXHI., and many other princes, bishops, 
abbots, and doctors of divinity were present. He was ordered to 
recant his doctrine. He attempted to defend himself, but the 
priests did not allow him to speak, preventing him by clamor. 
They thrust him into a marshy dungeon, in which he languished 
during seven months, and was taken sick. As he would not retract, 
he was sentenced to be burned at the stake (1415 A. D.) He 
appealed in vain to the safe conduct he had received from the 
emperor, and to the promise of security given to him by the pope. 
The synod declared that people are not bound to keep their word 
with heretics. First his writings were burned, then he himself, and 
his ashes scattered in the Rhine. One year later his friend, Jerome 
of Prague, suffered the same fate. 

In order to extort money from the credulous, the popes em- 
ployed many different means. They disposed of the prebends by 
auction, sold the indulgences, dispensed with the ecclesiastical laws, 
and imposed contributions for fighting the Turks, the Peter's 
pence, and other taxes. For money they were ready to grant the 
remission of any crime. This was extended even to the dead. 
After the introduction of the inquisition the execution of the here- 
tics was one of their ordinary functions. Their greed for more 
dominions continually involved them in wars. For a time two popes 
reigned — one in Rome, the other in Avignon (see § 66). Finally, 
even tliree were ruling (1409 A. D.) In order to end the schism of 
the Church, and to reform both its head and members, that great 

How did the pope oppose him ? What did Huss burn ? Where did he 
deliver his sermons ? To what synod was he summoned ? Who was present at 
the synod ? What was he ordered to recant ? Did the priests give him a hear- 
ing ? Where was he thrust ? What sentence did the synod pronounce against 
him ? To what did he appeal in vain ? What did the synod declare ? What 
■was his end ? W'ho suffered the same fate ? INIention some artifices of the 
popes to extort money from the credulous ? How many popes were, for a time, 
simultaneously reigning ? 



155 

synod of Constance was held (1414-1418 A. D.) The three popes 
were deposed and a new one, Martin V., elected; but he was not 
more energetic than the others, and dismissed the assembly with his 
benediction. Since that time the popes pursued their scandalous 
life, oppressed the national churches, and imposed taxes upon the 
nations for the benefit of their own families and relations. 

§ 70. The Sciences and Arts. Invention of the Art of 

Printing. Gutenberg. Commerce. 

Hanseatic League. 

At last the arts and sciences revived, and the dawn of a brighter 
time appeared ; for civil order returned. The Greeks who, after the 
conquest of Constantinople, fled to Italy, carried along with them 
Grecian literature, and several sovereigns honored and fostered the 
sciences and arts. To these belonged the Emperor Maximilian, 
some popes, and especially the princes of Florence, from the family 
of the Medici. But the principal cause of that happy event was 
the invention of the printing press. 

Its inventor was John Gensfieisch, of Gutenberg, a native of 
Mayence. He was the first who printed with movable letters (about 
1440 A. D.) Others before him had already printed with wooden 
plates. First he carved the letters from wood, but as these were 
not durable enough, he cut others from lead. Ha\dng, by these 
experiments, sacrificed his little fortune, he connected himself with 
the rich goldsmith, Faust, who advanced the necessary money. 
Peter Schoeffer then united with these two and invented the art of 
founding types and printing ink. In this way the first complete 
Bibles appeared (1456 A. D.) in print. The nice, and compara- 
tively cheap books, excited general astonishment, for they cost 
twenty times less than the written Bibles of the monks ; therefore 
these descried the new invention as a work of the devil. When 
Gutenberg could not pay Faust, the latter seized the types and 
presses. He, however, succeeded m establishing another printing 

What of Martin V. ? For whose benefit did the popes impose taxes upon 
the nations ? § 70. What causes brought about the dawn of literature and the 
arts ? What princes fostered them ? Who is the inventor of the printing press ? 
From what material did he first carve the letters ? Why did he cut others from 
lead ? What of Faust and Peter Schoeffer ? What books were first completely 
printed ? Why did the monks descry the new art as a work of the devil ? How 
was Gutenberg treated by Faust ? 



156 

press. Gutenberg himself, who had so far remained poor, was at 
last patronized by the prince elector of Mayence, and passed the 
rest of his life free from cares. The sovereigns and priests soon 
limited the liberty of the press by severe censorial laws. 

The invention of paper, made of linen (about 1300 A. D.), and 
'of the printing of wooden figures (1355 A. D.) preceded and aided 
that of the printing press. The latter led to the invention of en- 
graving on copper. First the figures were cut into copper plates. 
Later (about 1500 A. D.) the art of etching them (by means of 
strong acids) was learned. Moreover, in this period the spectacles 
(1295 A. D.) and the telescope, the gunpowder, and the watches 
(about 1500 A. D.) were invented. Before this (since 1000 A. D.) 
only clocks of steeples and house-clocks were known. By the use 
of gunpowder the whole military science, principally the tactics of 
besieging, were changed. Bertold Schwarz, a monk, is said to have 
invented it (about 1300 A. D.) The Arabs and Chinese, however, 
already knew it before this. In later times, the lock and the cock 
of guns were invented (15 17 A. D.) The compass was improved 
(1302 A. D.) 

The fine arts first flourished again principally in Italy, but the 
practical sciences were still neglected. The minds of men were 
by far less applied to philosophy, for the power of the Church was 
opposed to it. Many universities were instituted. They were 
attended by thousands. The university of Pavia had sixty-seven 
professors. In Germany the most ancient universities were in 
Prague (1348 A. D.), Vienna, Heidelberg and Leipsic. The first 
theater was opened in France (13 13 A. D.) 

The eminent scholars of this period in Germany were : Ulric 
Hutten, Reuchlin and Erasmus of Rotterdam. They zealously pro- 
moted the study of the ancient classic languages and sciences. 
They also contended victoriously against monachism with the weap- 
ons of raillery ; especially so did Erasmus in his book, " Praise of 
Folly." In England, Roger Bacon and William Occam were the 

Why ? What did Gutenberg re-establish ? Who, at last, patronized him ? 
Who limited the liberty of the press ? What inventions preceded that of the 
press ? To what invention did the latter lead ? Mention other inventions of this 
period. What influence had the invention of gunpowder on warfare ? Who is 
said to hfive invented it ? What instrument was improved ? Where did the fine 
arts first flourish ? How many professors had the university of Pavia ? Which 
was the oldest university in Germany ? Where was the first theater opened ? 
Scholars in Germany? How did Erasmus contend against the monks? Name 
two English scholars. 



157 

most liberal thinkers of their age. The former, a Franciscan friar, 
became famous for his discoveries in chemistry and mechanical 
philosophy. Dante and Petrarca, in Italy, were the greatest poets. 
Dante was also a statesman and jurisprudent, an astronomer, geogra- 
pher and historian. He strove almost as strongly as Luther against 
the doctrine of the popes and monks. He was called the greatest 
man of his age for his celebrated poem entitled, " Divina Comedia." 
In it he describes the purgatory, the heaven and hell. To the latter 
he relegates popes and crowned sovereigns also. Petrarca was 
crowned poet laureate by the king of Naples. 

Commerce began to rise by the institution of posts, banks and 
bills of exchange, and by the discovery of new lands. Besides 
Venice, Genoa, Nuremberg and Augsberg, principally, the Hanse 
towns in northern Germany prospered by it. These towns had 
formed a large commercial company, called Hansa (Hanseatic 
League), in order to protect their commerce against the pillage of 
the Normans and the predatory knights (about 1240 A. D.) Their 
league comprised more than eighty cities which, from Cologne to 
Narva, formed a long, well-fortified series. At their head were 
Liibeck and Bremen. They kept large armies in pay, fitted out 
powerful fleets, and waged war even against kings. They not only 
monopolized the trade of the Baltic, but extended their influences 
to the shores of the Mediterranean, and competed with the Italians 
in the merchandise of India. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies. Rudolph of Hapsburg : i. His good qualities (administra- 
tion of justice, simplicity, frugality, gratitude, faithfulness); 2. His faults. 
Albert I. : His dealings — I. With the forest cantons ; 2. With his ward. 
Give a narrative of the Burgundian wars — i. Their cause ; 2. Battles at Gran- 
son, Murten and Nancy. With what Austrian sovereigns did the Swiss confed- 
erates have conflicts ? When and where ? Write the history of England, from 
Edward III. to Henry VII. Show from French and German history, and from 
the transactions of a great synod, that in this period the power of the popes 
began to wane. Who were the harbingers of Martin Luther, and what was 

By what did Bacon become f9,mous? Italian poets? Against whom did 
Dante strive ? For what poem was he called the greatest man of his age ? 
What does he describe in the " Divina Comedia" ? Who is relegated to hell ? 
By whom was Petrarca crowned poet laureatus ? By what means did commerce 
rise? What towns prospered by it ? Give an account of the Hansa. How far 
did her commeixe extend ? How many cities did she comprise ? Which were 
at the head of the League ? What of its power ? 



158 

their fate ? What inventions were made in this period ? What renowned poets 
lived during the time embraced in it ? What memorable events happened in 
the years 1215, 1315, 1415 and 1515? What celebrated antagonist of popery- 
died 300 years after Gregory VII. ? How many years after the abolition of the 
Order of Templars was the first theater in France opened ? How many years 
elapsed between the beginning of the War of the Two Roses and the conquest 
of Constantinople ? What war came to an end simultaneously with the latter ? 
When did Switzerland, in fact, become independent of Germany ? How many 
years before the battle at Murten did Petrarca die ? 




THIRD SECTION. 



MODERN HISTORY, 



SEVENTH PERIOD. 

FrotT] the Discovery of America to i\\e Westphaliaq 
Peace. I, Voyages of Discovery, 2, Reforma- 
tioq of the Cl^ristian Churchi and Relig- 
ious Wars, Frorr] 1492 to 1648 A, D, 



FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOET. 



1. VOYAGES OF DISOOVEET-1420 to 1530 A. D. 



§ 71. Vaseo de Gama. Columbus. 

During the middle ages the articles of merchandise of southern 
Asia were received by way of Egypt or Syria, or they were carried 
from the interior of Asia to the Caspian and Black seas, and from 
there through Russia to the Baltic* Sea, from whence they came 
into the northern and western countries of Europe. These round- 
about ways of commerce were inconvenient and very expensive. 
Therefore prince Henry, son of John I., king of Portugal, caused 
a way by sea to be sought for, on which it should be possible to 
reach Hindostan by doubling the southern point of Africa. The 
mariners sent out for this purpose by degrees discovered (1420- 
1460 A. D.) Porto Santo, Madeira, the Azores, and different coun- 

§ 71. By what ways were the articles of merchandise of Southern Asia trans- 
ported during the middle ages ? What other way did Prince Henry of Portugal 
cause to be sought for ? Why ? What islands and countries did the mariners 
discover ? 
159 



160 

tries on the western coast of Africa. John II. ordered these voy- 
ages to be continued. Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern 
point of Africa (i486 A. D.), but tempests compelled him to return. 
He therefore called it the Cape of Tempests. But when the king 
received the good tidings, he cried out : " No ! it must be called 
Cape of Good Hope, for now the way by sea to India is found." 
Vasco de Gama discovered it. He boldly doubled the cape (1497 
A. D.), and, guided by Arabs who knew the route by sea, arrived 
happily in Hindostan, entering into the harbor of Calicut (1498 
A. D.) By degrees the Portuguese, partly by treaties, partly by 
conquests, acquired the possession of many maritime countries of 
Africa and Asia, where the illustrious viceroy, Albuquerque, ex- 
tended their dominion from Persia as far as China, many Indian 
islands also being included. 

But Christopher Columbus, of Genoa, surpassed all mariners of 
his age. When a youth he assiduously studied geography, geom- 
etry and astronomy, and even from boyhood devoted himself to 
navigation. Persuaded by the possibility of reaching Eastern India 
by sailing westward across the Atlantic, he first applied to his native 
town, also to John II., for ships to attempt this passage. Rejected 
by both, he had recourse to Ferdinand the Catholic, of Spain. 
Here, too, he had to wait five years, which he passed in poverty. 
Many to whom he disclosed his plan even thought hmi to be crazy. 
Finally, as he was about to go to England for aid, Queen Isabella 
was gained over to his purpose. By her favor he obtained three 
old ships, with a crew of 120 men, and was promised that in the 
countries he would discover he should keep the hereditary dignity 
of a viceroy. 

He set out the third day of August, 1492, from the harbor of 
Palos, and sailed first to the Qanary Islands, where he made provi- 
sions for fresh water, and from there westward into the open main. 
The sailors were frightened by the limitless expanse of the unknown 
ocean. They were still more discouraged when, after having sailed 

How far did Diaz go? Why not farther ? What did John II. call the south- 
ern point of Africa ? How far did Vasco de Gama sail ? Into what harbor did 
he enter ? What possessions did the Portuguese acquire ? By whose aid ? Who 
surpassed all mariners ? What did Columbus study in his youth ? Of what 
possibility was he persuaded ? To whom did he first apply for ships ? To 
whom afterwards ? How did he succeed in Spain ? Who was gained for his 
purpose ? What did he obtain, and what was he promised ? When did he set 
out ? Fi-om where ? Where did he first sail ? Why ? Why were the sailors 
frightened ? 



161 

for six weeks, no land yet appeared in sight. They impetuously 
demanded an immediate return to Spain. Columbus, however, suc- 
ceeded in appeasing them for a time; but at last they arose in mu- 
tiny; some even thought it to be the best plan to throw him 
straightway overboard, and then to report that he, while observing 
the stars, had fallen from the ship into the water and been drowned. 
Columbus was aware of the danger of his situation, which was the 
more hopeless because all the vessels were already leaky. He was, 
nevertheless, able to calm them once more. But soon the mutiny 
began again, and he saw that the moment of his destruction was 
imminent, when, suddenly believing that they saw land, hope took 
the place of despair. However, they had been mistaken. 

Finally, the end of the voyage approached. Numerous flocks 
of birds flew by the ships. Columbus followed their direction, 
steering southwest. The air now grew fresher, the scent of plants 
diffusing itself as at the return of spring; rushes, reed-stalks, 
branches of trees, and a board, artfully fitted, came floating towards 
them. On the morning of the twelfth of October, 1492, the New 
World lay in sight of the bold, enraptured sailors. This was the 
happiest day in the entire life of Columbus. 

It was the Island Guanahani (St. Salvador), one of the Bahama 
islands, on which he landed. He took possession of it instantly in 
the name of the king of Spain. Then he sailed to Hayti, in order 
to get gold, built a fort there and furnished it with a garrison. 

On his return to Spain, he again underwent a fearful tempest. 
In order to save, if possible, the information of the new discoveries, 
he wrote an abstract of his voyage on two scrolls of parchment, 
putting them into two tuns, of which one was immediately thrown 
into the ocean ; the other was to be let down the moment of ship- 
wreck. But the storm abated, and Columbus landed safely in 
Spain, where his journey resembled a triumphal procession. King 
Ferdinand received him most honorably, and confirmed all rights 
conferred on him. 

Columbus undertook three more voyages to America (1493-1502 

How long had they sailed, when they wanted to return ? Continue the nar- 
rative of the voyage. What of the mutiny of the mariners ? What of Colum- 
bus ? Why were the sailors appeased ? What signs of land appeared ? What 
did Columbus follow in his course ? When did land appear ? What island was 
it where he landed ? Where did he sail to from it ? Why ? What did he build 
on Hayti ? Narrate his return ? What precaution did he take in the tempest ? 
How was he received in Spain ? What did the king confirm ? How many more 

voyages did Columbus undertake ? 
(11) 



162 

A. D.) during which he discovered the Caribbee Islands, Jamaica, 
the Little Antilles, and Central America ; the most southern point he 
reached was the Island of Trinidad. 

The garrison left in Hayti treated the defenseless inhabitants so 
cruelly that they, at last, assailed and killed the Spaniards. Colum- 
bus imposed upon the Indians a tribute in gold, in order to satisfy 
the avarice of his companions and the king. The wretches op- 
posed him in vain ; they were vanquished, and cut down by the 
Spanish horsemen. Columbus divided the land among the Span- 
iards, giving to each also some natives as slaves. Most of these, 
however, soon succumbed under the burden of the unusual tasks 
imposed upon them. 

These cruel deeds, though, did not afford to Columbus the ex- 
pected profit. He was recalled from his second voyage by the 
calumnies of his discontented companions, and ordered to appear 
at the Spanish court, where he succeeded as yet in exculpating him- 
self; but when the indictment was repeated, Ferdinand deposed 
him and dispatched Francis Bobadilla to take his place and be his 
judge, who, without any inquiry, caused Columbus and his brother 
to be fettered and conducted to Spain. Columbus, in fact, proved 
his innocence this time, too, but the dignity of viceroy was forever 
lost ; and, as his patroness, Isabella, died soon after, his merits and 
achievements were soon forgotten. These undeserved mortifications 
hastened his death (1506 A. D.) According to his last will, the 
chains he wore during the passage were put into his grave. Finally, 
his son recovered the vice-regency, not by his own right, but only 
because he had married the niece of a duke. 

Columbus himself, like his contemporaries, believed the newly 
discovered countries to be the sought-for India, therefore the islands 
near Central America are still called West Indies. Concerning the 
name America, the new continent received it from Americus Vespu- 
cius, who first described it. 

What countries did he discover ? Why was the garrison in Hayti killed ? 
What did he impose upon the Indians ? Why ? How were they treated ? How 
did the king deal with Columbus ? From what voyage was he recalled ? How 
was Jie and his brother used by Bovadilla ? What dignity did he lose ? What 
was his last will ? Why did his son recover the lost dignity ? Why are the 
islands near Central America called West Indies ? From whom did America 
first receive its name ? 



163 

^ 72. Ferdinand Cortez. Pizarro. Magellan. First 

Settlements in the Territory of the United States. 

The Pilgrim Fathers. 

After the death of Columbus, the voyages of discovery in 
America were continued with great ardor. Balboa crossed the 
Isthmus of Darien, where he was governor of a Spanish colony, 
and discovered the Pacific Ocean (15 13 A. D.) Ferdinand Cortez 
landed in Mexico (1519 A. D.), where he found people of much 
higher culture than he had met with before in America. But he 
had only 600 men and ten small cannon, besides some muskets 
and horsemen. The Mexicans were astonished by the sight of the 
white men, whom they deemed beings of a higher order, and espe- 
cially by the horsemen, whom they beHeved, with their horses, to 
■ be composed of one body, and therefore to be a pecuHar species of 
creatures. Cortez entered their capital without resistance, took their 
cazique, Montezuma, prisoner, and destroyed their idols, to whom 
they sacrificed annually thousands of men as victims. But, driven by 
the cruelty and covetousness of the Spaniards to insurrection, they 
compelled them to quit the city. After having received a rein- 
forcement of troops, they besieged Mexico, and took it (15 21 A. D.) 
They disgraced their victory by revolting cruelty. They put the 
inhabitants to the rack in order to extort treasures from them. They 
inflicted this torture also upon the young emperor, and after that 
Cortez caused him to be hung. When he was governor in the con- 
quered land, he acted even more cruelly. Thus he caused sixty 
princes, and four hundred other distinguished men to be burned alive ; 
their children were obUged to be present at their death as witnesses. 
Cortez, " after all the services he had rendered to the king, Charles 
v., was, like Columbus, persecuted at home. 

Francis Pizarro who, from a swine-herd, had, in the name of 
Charles V., become the conquerer of Peru (1529 A. D.), was still 
more savage. As the Inca (king) was contending with a relation 
for the throne, he made use of the strife as a pretext in order to 

g 72. Who crossed the Isthmus of Darien ? Who landed in Mexico ? What 
military forces did he have ? What sight astonished the Mexicans ? Why ? 
Whom did Cortez take prisoner ? What did he destroy ? How did the Spaniards 
use the Mexicans ? What was the consequence ? How did they deal with the 
vanquished people ? Why did they put them to the rack ? What was the fate of 
the emperor ? How did Cortez, while governor, act toward the Spaniards ? Was 
Charles V. grateful to him ? What country did Pizarro conquer ? Under what 
pretext did he take the Inca prisoner ? 



164 

take him prisoner. The former promised in vain to fill up an entire 
room with gold for his freedom. Pizarro took the gold, and never- 
theless executed the Inca. When the treasures were divided, every 
foot-soldier received 30,000 florins, every horseman twice as much, 
the officers still more ; and over a million was sent to the king of 
Spain. Pizarro, at last, was killed by his own men. 

In general, the Spaniards committed in America the most 
atrocious cruelties. They abused even religion as a cloak for their 
wrong-doings. The Indians were compelled to be baptized ; he who 
refused was burned, without ceremony. Therefore a cazique, whom 
a priest tried to persuade to be baptized by promising him the para- 
dise, would rather be burned than to come to a place where, accord- 
ing to the words of the priest, Spaniards were residing. Hundreds 
of dead Indians were seen lying at the entrance of the mines at 
which they were obliged to work. Of a million inhabitants, hardly' 
50,000 were left alive after fifteen years. The caziques were usually 
first burned, in order to warn their subjects by their fate. It was in 
vain that the noble-minded Las Casas declared against such pro- 
ceedings ; his representations were left unheard at the court ; only 
since then it became the usage to employ the stronger negroes, 
instead of the Indians, for the cultivation of the plantations. In 
all these horrors the Inquisitional Tribunal freely took part. The 
enormous quantity of the precious metals which Spain drew from 
her American possessions contributed to make her, for awhile, the 
preponderating power in Europe ; but an inordinate thirst for the 
gold and silver in America led the Spaniards to neglect agriculture 
and manufactures, and before the close of this period their best 
days were over. The Portuguese discovered Brazil (1500 A. D.) 

In this time the first sailing around the globe took place (1519- 
1522 A. D.) Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, in the Spanish 
service, sailed with three miserable ships from Sevilla to South 
America, passed the winter in Patagonia, and then, through the 

What did the latter give him for his freedom ? Did he become free ? How 
much did the soldiers receive when the treasures were divided ? How much the 
king ? How did Pizarro perish ? In what manner were the Indians converted 
to Christianity ? "What answer did a cazique make to a priest who tried to convert 
him ? How many Indians perished in the mines ? Who was usually first burned ? 
Why ? By whom were they finally substituted ? What tribunal took part in the 
atrocities ? Was Spain much benefited by the acquisition of so many treasures ? 
Why not ? What country did the Portuguese discover ? Who first sailed around 
the globe ? Give the narrative of his voyage. Where did he pass the winter ? 



165 

straits bearing his name, entered the Pacific Ocean. Here they 
suffered an indescribable famine. They ate not only biscuit mixed 
with worms, but even roasted leather, saw-dust and mice, paying 
half a ducat apiece. Almost the whole crew fell sick ; several 
died. Magellan himself was killed in a fight on the Phihppines with 
the savages. Finally they reached the Moluccas. The Portuguese 
who were here trading commenced hostiUties against the navigators, 
the crew of one ship being compelled to surrender, the other to quickly 
depart. Out of more than two hundred persons only eighteen 
returned to Spain. 

About loo years after the discovery of America the settlement 
of the eastern coast of North America began, which formed the 
foundation of the United States. First the London commercial 
■company sent colonists to Virginia who founded Jamestown 
(1607 A. D.) The colony was divided into several counties, and 
the people were allowed to elect two representatives from each 
county to a colonial assembly (1619 A. D.) In the same year the 
first representative assembly ever convened in America was held at 
Jamestown. The company further granted the Virginians a written 
constitution (1621 A. D.) This secured them the privilege of elect- 
ing their legislature, of trial by jury and other important rights, and 
was the foundation of civil liberty in Virginia. At this time (1620 
A. D.) the first African slaves were bought by the planters. Later 
their numbers greatly increased. 

New York State was settled by the Dutch. Henry Hudson 
landed on Manhattan Island and discovered Hudson river (1609 
A. D.) The Dutch West India Company sent out a number of 
families who founded New Amsterdam (now New York) (1623 A. D.), 
and a year later Albany (1624 A. D.) 

In Massachusetts a colony was founded by a small band of per- 
secuted religious Englishmen, known as the Pilgrim Fathers. They 
belonged to the sect of the Puritans, left England on account of 

What of the famine of the crew ? What was the effect ? Where was Magel- 
lan killed ? What incidents happened in the Moluccas ? How many returned ? 
When did the settlement of the coast of North America begin ? What company 
sent the first settlers ? What town did they found? What rights did the colony 
enjoy? When and where was the first representative assembly convened ? What 
rights did the company grant the organization in the written constitution ? When 
were the first negroes imported ? Who founded New York and Albany ? What 
was the former town called ? What State did the Dutch settle ? Who founded 
the first colony in Massachusetts ? Why did they leave England ? 



166 

religious persecution, and resolved to seek an asylum in the wilds of 
America. They took passage on a vessel named the Mayflower 
(1620 A. D.) There were one hundred and one persons. They 
made a' landing at Plymouth. On board the Mayflower the men 
had all agreed they would obey the laws that should be made for the 
common good. Their government was a pure democracy. In the 
cold New England winter most of them fell sick, and before spring 
half of the little band had perished. Some years later the Massa- 
chusetts Bay Company sent many more Puritan settlers (1628 A. D.) 
who founded Boston, Cambridge and other places. John Winthrop 
was their first governor. He was greatly respected, and frequently 
re-elected chief magistrate of the new colony. The government of 
this colony was under a charter or written instrument granted by 
Charles I., king of England. It gave the settlers certain political 
rights and privileges. The persecution of English CathoHcs led to 
the colonization of Maryland (1634 A. D.) Their leader was Lord 
Baltimore. Roger Williams, though himself a Puritan, desired to 
give an equal protection to every form of religious faith. His 
brethren in Massachusetts, therefore, banished him, and resolved to 
remove him to England. He escaped to Rhode Island, and founded 
Providence (1636 A. D.) "I desired," said he, "that the place 
might be a shelter for persons distressed for conscience sake." 

2, KEPORMATION OF THE CHURCH AND EELIGIOTJS WARS. 1517-1648 A, D. 



I 73. Germany. Causes of the Reformation. Martin 
Luther. Diet of Worms. 

In the preceding period the condition of the Christian Church 
was already so wretched that the outcry for its reform universally 
resounded. But this was neither heeded by the popes nor by the 
prelates of the Church generally, and the great synods of Constance 
and Basle passed without any success in this direction. The lay- 
men themselves, therefore, were obliged to set to work to effect a 
reformation. 

How many were there ? What kind of government did they establish ? Where 
did they make a landing ? What fate did they suffer ? Who founded Boston and 
Cambridge ? Who was their first governor ? What did Charles I. grant to the 
colony ? By whom was Maryland colonized ? Who was the leader of the colonists ? 
How was Roger Williams used by his brethern ? What place did he found ? What 
was his intention in founding it ? § 73. What outcry concerning the Church was 
universal in the preceding period ? Was it heeded ? Who, thei-efore, was obliged 
to take the work in hand ? 



167 



In Germany there were some additional reasons for a reforma- 
tion The sovereigns of the empire were dependent upon Rome 
Even the emperors were oMiged to obey the popes, because they 
wire c owned by them. The German prelates and churches pos- 
retred the larger and finer part of the public property, and were ex- 
empt from all civil charges and duties. The corruption and tyranny 
o^the clergy was unbounded. The assurance of ^P^'y — «; 
led them to perpetrate the gravest crimes. They mdulged m the 
;te!; luxury' The popes extorted from Germany tmmen. sums 
under the titles of dispensations, mdulgences, taxes for *e Turk'^h 
wars etc They reserved half of the benefices for themselves, and 
Te ftem to the highest bidders, who sold them again to others^ By 
their notorious viciousness they had already lost a 8°?^ tol of the, 
authority and power. Finally, the pnntmg press diffused the rays 
orenhgLenmen. wider and wider, and public opimon gained more 

"'BTti:Te~se which excited the rehgious revolution was the 
scandalous traffic in indulgences of Leo X. In Germany, espe- 
SaT this pope hoped to acquire through them the sums he needed 
r atisfy hfs love of splendor and of luxury. He asserted that the 
money paM over to him would make amends for the lack of morality, 
Td deUver the guilty from their civil and divine pena tie. For a 
trifling sum the remission of all, even the grossest sins, could be pur 
chased and heaven was thrown open to every crimina. Of the 
;';! 'agents, the archbishops of Metz, and the domm.an, ohn 
Tezel, carried on this traffic the most successfully. Now cned 
Tezel and his fellow preachers, " now heaven is open ; »" ^^ 
enter who does not come in by such a cheap bargam ? What mind 
mu" he have who does not hurry to release his father from the 
Torments of purgatory? As soon as the shrove-money jmgles m 
the chest, the soul jumps out of purgatory.' 

Every inteUigent man was disgusted by this scandal, and more 
so than all. Dr. Martm Luther, an Augustine friar_andprofess«rf 

were ,h. sovereigns and even .he ^^"■''X''^^'''':' X^'jl^^lZ^^ 
and churches? How were the morals ot the ''<^^\J^''\'''jT''^Zt did 
o( the nones' How did they lose much ot their authority? What effect da 
thepinSVess produce? Uat was the next cause »f *= f;i;'°- ";t; 
ion? Whi did Leo X. assert? Who were h,s agents ? ^hat "' Teze , Whrt 
dM he promise to the credtdous for their money? Give some detail of the youth 
of Martin Luther. 



168 

theology at Wittenberg. He was born in Eisleben, where his father 
was a poor miner. He was destined by him to study jurisprudence. 
One day he took a walk with a friend, who was killed by lightning 
at his side. The youth grew melancholy, and joined the Order of 
the Augustine monks. Here he had to perform the lowest work, 
to open a,nd shut the church doors, go with the beggar-bag through 
the streets, etc. His melancholy increased ; nothing but music was 
able to divert him. Still he was studying assiduously, and was grad- 
uated as Doctor of Philosophy. He hked best to study the Bible. 
From this gloomy state of mind, which wasted his mental and phys- 
ical forces, the prior of the convent delivered him, by proposing to 
Frederic the Wise, elector-sovereign of Saxony, to appoint him pro- 
fessor in the university of Wittenberg. Here Luther entered into a 
sphere of activity which was better suited to his erudition (1508 
A. D.) Soon after he became also town preacher. During a jour- 
ney on which he went to Rome (1510 A. D.), by order of his con- 
vent, he became better acquainted with the infamous life of the 
popes, and with the immorality of their court. 

After having in vain complained in a missive he had addressed 
to the archbishop of Metz, of the mischief of the indulgences, he 
affixed on the church of the castle in Wittenberg those famous 
ninety-five theses, by which he declared the indulgences to have 
been merely invented by the popes with the design to make money. 
These theses were translated into German, and innumerable copies 
spread abroad. Luther was summoned to Rome, and only with 
difficulty could his sovereign procure him a trial in Augsburg. 
Luther appeared with a safe conduct, provided by Frederic, in the 
presence of the papal legate (1518 A. D.) This dignitary de- 
manded unconditional recantation, and threatened him with the 
anathema. Luther quickly departed, for the legate made prepara- 
tions to take him prisoner. A second attempt another legate made, 
in order to induce him to recant, had no better success. 

After this, the papal bull of excommunication directed against 
Luther arrived from Rome (1520 A. D.), but without great effect. 

^Vho was his father ? Why did he grow melancholy ? What were his chores 
in the convent ? What art would tend to diminish his melancholy ? What did 
he like best to study ? Who deliVei-ed him from the gloomy state of his mind? 
In what manner ? How did he become better acquainted with the life of the 
popes ? What writing did he publish in Wittenberg? What were the contents 
of the theses ? What eifect had they ? What of the trials of the papal legate ? Why 
did Luther quickly depart ? What bull did the pope then direct against him ? 



169 

In Leipsic the students nearly killed its bearer. Luther assembled 
the teachers of the university of Wittenberg outside of the town. 
The students raised a wood-pile, a teacher kindled it, and amid 
general exultation Luther threw the bull and the volumes of the 
canon law into the fire. 

Meanwhile the lately elected emperor, Charles V., came to Ger- 
many, in order to hold a diet in Worms, and Luther was summoned 
to be present at it (1521 A. D.) Though suffering from the effects 
of a fever, he resolved to set out immediately. A friend warned him 
against Worms, but he answered : " I shall go, even if as many 
devils were in town as tiles on the roofs." However, his sovereign 
did not consent to his journey till the emperor had promised him a 
safe conduct -and a secure return. Luther's journey resembled a 
triumphal procession. In all towns through which he passed he 
was met by crowds of people, who hailed him as their deUverer. A 
great many noblemen swore to assist him. The papal legate, on the 
contrary, though traveling in the train of the emperor, was only 
scoffed and derided ; hardly anybody would receive him. 

When Luther appeared in the diet, being intimidated by the 
aspect of the large, resplendent assembly, he asked them to grant 
him one day for consideration ; but on the second day he defended 
his doctrine with resoluteness and courage, declined absolutely to 
retract, as they ordered him to do, and concluded by saying: 
" Now, because they demand a plain, smiple answer from me, I will 
give one which has neither horns nor teeth. I do neither believe 
the pope, nor his synods, for both have often erred and contra- 
dicted themselves. Therefore, I cannot, and shall not recant, unless 
they refute me by testimonies of the holy writ, or by evident rea- 
sons; for it is not advisable to do anything against conscience. 
Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise ! God help me ! If this be 
human work, it will fall to ruins of itself; but if it be from God, you 
will never destroy it!" 

Luther's numerous friends were delighted by this bold answer. 
He was proscribed ; but his sovereign Frederic had taken precaution 

How did Luther and the students treat it ? To what diet was he summoned ? 
What did the emperor promise to him ? What did his journey resemble ? What 
did the noblemen swear to do ? What of the papal legate ? Give an account of 
Luther's conduct in the diet. What did he ask on the first day ? Why ? What 
did he do on the next day ? Why would he not believe the popes and the synods ? 
Upon what condition only would he recant ? What sentence did the diet pass ? 
Who protected his life ? 



170 

to protect the reformer. On his return, accordingly, Luther was 
suddenly stopped in a forest by masked horsemen, and safely carried 
to the fortified castle Wartburg, near Eisenach. In the profound 
concealment in which he lived here, he composed new writings, 
especially the excellent translation of the New Testament. 

Meanwhile the ban of the empire, inflicted on him, was forgot- 
ten, and the work of reformation speedily advanced. Many con- 
vents Avere abolished, and a large part of their revenues set aside for 
the ministry of the gospel, for the instruction of the youth, and for 
institutions for the poor. The priests were permitted to marry. 
Mass and confession were abrogated. Luther himself laid aside the 
habit of his Order, and married (1525 A. D.) Catherine Bora, who 
had left the convent with other nuns. His faithful friend and asso- 
ciate in the reformatory task was the meek and learned Philip 
Melanchton. 

§74. Continued. Insurrection of the Peasants. Confes- 
sion of Augsburg. "War of Smaleald, 
Religious Peace of Augsburg. 

Many peasants in Southern Germany, mistaking the spirit of 
such reforms, believed themselves to be entitled to attain, in con- 
nection with religious liberty, also social equality, and demanded 
(not without reason, however) from the sovereigns that they take off 
the unfair imposts, and abolish servitude, socage, tithes, etc. But 
they dealt cruelly with their lords, destroyed their castles, and plun- 
dered churches and convents. They were vanquished and killed in 
bands, even bishops acting as their hangmen, when Luther uttered 
these severe words: "Slay the mad dogs!" They submitted 
again, and their doom became even sadder. Of the longest dura- 
tion was the sedition of the Anabaptists in Thuringia, who preached 
community of property. They were also beaten, and their leader, 
Thomas Miinzer, captured and beheaded. When some Catholic 
princes concluded an alliance for the protection of their creed, the 
Lutheran States did the same for the defense of their belief (1526 
A. D.) At the diet of Speier (1529 A. D.) some restrictions on 
their faith were decreed, but they protested solemnly against them. 

In what manner ? What did he translate in his retirement ? Give some de- 
tail of the reformation. What of Catherine Bora ? Of Melanchton ? | 74. What 
social reforms did many peasants in southern Germany demand ? How did they 
deal with their lords ? With churches and convents ? What was their success ? 
What of the Anabaptists in Thuringia? 



171 

whence they received the name Protestants. At the diet of Augs- 
burg (1530 A. D.) they presented a memorial, composed by 
Melanchton, and containing their religious confession, therefore 
they were called the relations of the Augsburg confession. The Catho- 
lic States of the empire rejected it, and summoned the heretics (as 
they called them) to return into the fold of the orthodox Church. 
Indignantly the Protestants left the diet, whereupon their faith was 
declared to be heresy, and its propagation forbidden under the 
severest penalties. Therefore all the Protestant princes confederated 
at Smalcald, in order to defend their religious liberty, if necessary^ 
with force. Finally, Charles prepared for war against them. They 
also took up arms ; but the emperor, pressed by the arms of the 
Turks, and needing the help of the Protestants, did not execute, at 
this time, the resolutions of that diet. At last, after the Turks had 
been defeated and driven back upon their own territories, he deter- 
mined, in concert with the pope, to put down the Reformation by 
force of arms. 

Maurice of Saxony, though himself a Protestant, but longing 
for the lands of his cousin, the elector-sovereign of Saxony, deserted 
to the emperor, conquered Saxony, and took his cousin prisoner. 
The landgrave of Hessen was also made a prisoner. Maurice 
obtained Saxony as a reward for his treason. When his avarice was 
satisfied he favored the Protestants again, and asked the emperor to 
liberate the two princes, and, as Charles did not grant his request, he 
led his army against him (1552 A. D.) The latter narrowly es- 
caped capture. The princes became free, and at Augsburg a treaty 
was concluded which granted the Protestants the free practice of 
their reUgion (1555 A. D.), with the stipulation, however, that, if 
in future States and prelates should be converted to the Protest- 
ant Church, their prebends should be reserved to the Catholic 
Church. This article of ecclesiastic reservation, which the emperor 
had arbitrarily added, became, in later time, the cause of indescrib- 
able sufferings for all Germany. 

How did the name "Protestant" originate? What did the Protestants pre- 
sent at the diet of Augsburg ? What did the diet resolve concerning their faith ? 
Explain the origin of the confederation at Smalcald. Why did Charles not make 
war upon them ? When did he wage it ? Who deserted to him ? Why ? Who 
became his prisoners ? When did Maurice again favor the Protestants, and what 
did he ask of the emperor then ? How did he compel him to grant his request ? 
What right did the Protestants obtain by the treaty of Augsburg ? Explain the 
article of the ecclesiastical reservation. 



172 

Ferdinand I. (1553-1564 A. D.), brother of Charles, paid to the 
Turks an annual tribute. Maximilian II. (1564-1576 A. D.) marched 
with 80,000 soldiers, composed of Germans, Austrians, Italians and 
French, against Solimafi II., who wanted to conquer Hungary, and 
besieged the fortress Sigeth. Nicholas Zrini defended it, and died 
upon its smoking ruins, a hero like Leonidas. Both sovereigns kept 
their conquests. 

Rudolph II (1576-1612 A. D.) was often defeated by the Turks. 
For the sake of his astronomical reveries, he neglected the duties of 
government. He did not mind the religious troubles which 
hicreased every day, and already in several places were settled by 
the sword. The Protestant States, in order to aid each other, 
formed the Union and the Catholic concluded the League (^i6 10 
A. D.); both parties levied armies; at their head were the electoral 
sovereigns Frederic, of Palatinate, and Maximilian, of Bavaria. 

^ 75. Continued. The Thirty Years' War. Insurrection 
of the Bohemians. Ferdinand II. Restitution Edict. 

Emperor Rudolph II. had accorded the Bohemian Protest- 
ants a charter by which he had granted them religious liberty, and, 
especially, the right to build churches and school-houses. Accord- 
ing to this right, the Evangelical inhabitants of the Klostergrab and 
Braunau built churches, but by order of Emperor Matthias, who 
meanwhile had succeeded Rudolph, one church was demolished, the 
other locked up. The States- General of the country remonstrated, 
but without success. Therefore they called the nation to arms, 
expelled the Jesuits and chose Frederic, elector-palatine, as their 
king (16 18 A. D.) Moreover, the Bohemians even besieged the 
new Emperor, Ferdinand II, in Vienna. But he, unawares, received 
aid, formed an alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, who was at the 
head of the Catholic League, and vanquished the Bohemians in 
the battle of Prague (1620 A. D.) As he was educated by cunning 
Jesuits, he had long ago vowed the extirpation of the Protestant 
faith; now the helpless country was compelled to endure his full 

What of Nicholas Zrini ? What did Rudolph II. neglect for astronomical 
fancy ? What alliances did the Protestant and Catholic States form? \ 75. How- 
did the Thirty years' war commence ? What did the inhabitants of Klostergrab 
and Braunau build ? What did the Emperor Rudolph do ? Who remonstrated ? 
Who called the nation to arms ? Whom did the States expel ? Whom did they 
choose king ? Whom did the Bohemians besiege ? Who aided Ferdinand ? 
Who was vanquished ? . What had Ferdinand vowed ? 



173 

revenge. Twenty-seven leaders of the rebellion, and an uncounted 
number of common citizens besides, were cruelly executed and 
their property confiscated, the Protestant preachers and school- 
teachers ill-treated and exiled, the Catholic religion, and with it the 
Order of the Jesuits re-established, over 30,000 familes driven into 
exile, and free religious exercise suspended. Ferdinand cut the 
charter of religious liberty in two with his own hand, and burned 
the seal. Frederic was proscribed, and Maximilian invested with 
his lands and dignity. Ferdinand's generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, 
vanquished all his adversaries, and now it depended upon him to 
terminate the pernicious war which for ten years had devastated 
Germany ; but he, believing that now the moment had arrived to 
strike the decisive blow on the Protestant Church, issued the ill-famed 
Edict of Restitution, and by it prolonged the terrors of war for 
twenty years. Appealing to the treaty of Augsburg (see § 74), he 
ordered the Protestants to restore all the ecclesiastic possessions they 
had confiscated since the conclusion of that treaty. To these 
belonged not less than two archbishoprics and twelve bishoprics, 
besides all canonicates of northern Germany, and a countless num- 
ber of abbeys and convents. An universal outcry of horror passed 
through entire Protestant Germany ; but, too weak to longer resist 
the implacable enemy, it could only be saved by foreign succor ; this 
was unexpectedly brought by Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. 

§ 76. Continued. Gustavus Adolphus. Battles at Leipsie 

and JLutzen. 

Gustavus Adolphus, induced by the most important reasons, 
turned his arms against Ferdinand. He saw his country and his 
faith, to which he Avas devoted with enthusiasm, threatened by the 
conquests the emperor had already made and was still making. He 
felt himself also competent to undertake the great enterprise. He 
was the first general of his age, and his troops were the best. He 
maintained strict discipline, and punished every excess in camp. 
At the morning and evening prayers every regiment was to form a 

What revenge did he take on the Bohemians ? How many were executed ? 
How many exiled ? What of the property of the executed ? Of religious liberty ? 
What Order and what religion were re-established ? What of Frederic ? Who 
were Ferdinand's generals? What of them ? What edict did he issue ? For 
how many years was the war prolonged by it ? What should the Protestants 
restore ? By whom was Protestant Germany saved ? § 76. Why did Gustavus 
wage war against Ferdinand ? What of his generalship and troops ? What of 
their discipline ? 



174 

circle around its preacher, and to perform its acts of devotion in 
open air. He shared every fatigue with the soldiers, and was per- 
sonally valiant. Such a leader was followed by the army into all 
dangers. 

Gustavus Adolphus landed with only 15,000 men, but they were 
chosen warriors, and the emperor himself soon augmented their 
number by dismissing 18,000 men from his army, most of whom 
enlisted with the king. At the same time Ferdinand discharged 
Wallenstein, his ablest general, at the request of the commander's 
personal enemies. The king chased the imperials from Pomerania 
and Mecklenburg, gave the latter country back to its princes, and 
allied with them. He also invited the electoral prince of Saxony 
to take part in the treaty, but the latter, through fear, hesitated to 
make up his mind. Meanwhile, General Tilly took Magdeburg 
by assault, and perpetrated an awful massacre among the inhabi- 
tants (1631 A. D.); 30,000 of them lost their lives. Neither age 
nor sex was spared ; infants were thrown into the flames, and 
babes speared on the bosoms of their mothers. The entire 
city was destroyed by fire. The electoral princes and the rest of 
the Protestant States did not hesitate any longer to participate in 
the league with Adolphus. 

The allies immediately tried their strength against the redoubtable 
Tilly, on the large plain, near Leipsic (1631 A. D.) This general 
charged the Saxons impetuously, and put them to flight ; only a 
division of Swedes, which the king had added to them, stood firmly. 
Meanwhile, Gustavus himself repelled the wild attacks of the im- 
perialists with his Swedes. Seven times Pappenheim attacked him, . 
and each time was compelled to give way. Finally, the king 
mounted the hill, on which the hostile artillery stood, took it, and 
directed it against the foe himself; thus Tilly's defeat was accom- 
plished. He took to flight ; his army was annihilated. Ferdinand 
thereafter did not despise the " snow king,'' as he ironically called 
Gustavus. 

With how many men did he land ? How did the emperor augment the 
Swedish army ? What general did he discharge ? Why ? From what countries 
did the king chase the imperials ? Who would not ally with him ? Why not ? 
What calamity was the consequence of the hesitation of the electoral prince? 
Give a description of the calamity. What effect did it exert on the Protestant 
States ? Where was a decisive battle fought ? Give an account of it. By what 
maneuver did Gustavus accomplish the defeat of Tilly ? What did Ferdinand 
ironically call Gustavus ? 



175 

The king rapidly continued his victorious course, passed through 
all Germany, defeated the imperial troops everywhere, forced the 
crossing over the Leek, where Tilly fell on the field of battle, and 
celebrated his entrance into Munich. In the meantime, the Saxons 
had conquered Bohemia. 

Ferdinand had now no army, nor a general. In his difficulty he 
applied entreatingly to Wallenstein, the offended subject, who 
indeed created for him a new army of 40,000 men in three months, 
but he consented to take its command only on the condition of 
dictatory power. At Lutzen, in the environs of Leipsic, Gustavus 
Adolphus attacked him. The Swedes rush on the imperial troops 
with the watchword, " God is with us," and soon beat the wing 
against which the king himself is fighting. The other wing wavers. 
The king hastens to its aid. Being near-sighted, he is carried too 
near the foe ; an imperial sergeant perceives him, and calls to a 
musketeer : " Discharge on him; he must be a distinguished man." 
That moment the ball shatters the left arm of the king. He orders 
his companion to lead him out of the crowd, and on the 
way receives a second shot through the back. " I have enough, 
brother," says he to him, "save only yourself," drops from 
the- horse and dies. The news of the king's death inflames 
his troops to new rage, instead of dispiriting them; the duke 
Bernard of Weimar leads on with the king's spirit. They twice 
cross again the hostile ditches ; whole regiments are cut down on 
the place where they stand fighting; Wallenstein's left wing is 
entirely routed ; the imperial powder- wagons take fire ; Count Pap- 
penheim, Wallenstein's bravest general, is killed. At last night puts 
an end to the combat, Wallenstein begins his retreat, and the 
Swedes are in triumphant possession of the battle-ground. More 
than 9,000 dead of both armies covered it. Gustavus' corpse, cov- 
eted with blood and wounds, robbed of the clothes and adornment, 
was drawn forth from under a heap of slain. The gray landmark 
where it was found is since that time called the " Swedes'-stone." 

What success had the latter ? What country did the Saxons conquer ? Who 
collected a new army for Ferdinand ? On what condition did Wallenstein take 
its command ? Where did Gustavus give him battle ? Give a description of the 
battle. What wing was beaten ? What misfortune befell the king? What effect 
did his death cause among his troops ? What of Bernard of Weimar ? Of Count 
Pappenheim ? Who kept the battle-ground ? Where was the corpse of Gustavus 
found ? 



176 

§ 77. Concluded. Battle at Nordlingen. Bernard of 
Weimar. Torstensohn, "Westphalian Peace. 

After the death of Gustavus, his great chancellor, Axel Oxen- 
stierna, managed the affairs of the Protestants in the councils, and 
Bernard of Weimar in the army. Wallenstein remained almost 
inactive; as he entered into secret negotiations with Saxony, his 
enemies accused him of treason, and the emperor secretly pro- 
scribed him. Then he engaged also with the Swedes, and to this 
end he went to Eger; but here he was killed (1634 A. D.) Ferdi- 
nand gave to his murderers a rich reward. The Protestants sus- 
tained another calamity by the battle at Nordlingen, where they 
lost 12,000 men (1634 A. D.) The Swedes were dispossessed of 
many conquests ; Saxony and other German States made a shame- 
ful separate peace with the emperor, according to which the Swedes 
should receive some millions of dollars, and then be expelled from 
Germany. 

In this distress, France, Austria's relentless enemy, afforded help 
to the Protestants. According to the advice of her great minister, 
Richeheu, she declared war on Ferdinand, paying to Bernard's troops 
their wages, who gained several victories. After his death, French 
generals commanded his army. The Swedes themselves contiruued 
to fight bravely; led by the great generals, Banner, Horn, Torsten- 
sohn, Wrangel, all pupils of Gustavus Adolphus, they soon obtained 
the superiority again, and maintained it almost continually till the 
end of the war. 

In the meantime Ferdinand II. had died, and his son, Ferdi- 
nand III., finally consented that a general peace congress of the 
belligerent States ought to be convened (1640 A. D.) But he was 
not in earnest in desiring peace ; he wanted only to get a respite, in 
order to recover the sunken vigor of his house. The Protestants, 
therefore, continued the war with energy, and Torstensohn van- 
quished the emperor in the same field at Leipsic where, ten years 
previous, Gustavus Adolphus was victorious. But, as the French 
were defeated, and Denmark declared war on the Swedes, Ferdi- 
nand once more suspended further action on the already com- 

§ 77. What of Oxenstierna? Of Wallenstein and his death ? By whom was 
he proscribed ? Why ? What of the battle at Nordlingen ? What was the loss 
of the Protestants ? W^ho made a separate peace ? Who afforded help to the 
Protestants ? What of the Swedish generals ? What did Ferdinand III. consent 
to do ? Was he in earnest ? Where did Torstensohn vanquish him ? 



■ 177 

menced treaty of peace. Still Torstensohn invaded Denmark in 
the midst of winter, and compelled it to lay,down its arms. Then 
he hastened back to Germany again and drove the imperials on, 
gained a splendid victory over Ferdinand's last army at Jankowitz^ 
not far from Tabor, and invaded his hereditary States, which thus 
far had been exempt from the desolations of the war. Ferdinand 
had to take to flight. Now he opened the congress in reahty ; but 
as soon as the French and Swedes, trusting to his honesty of pur- 
pose, had retired, the negotiations ceased again. The provoked 
French returned and overran Bavaria; the Swedes besieged Prague 
and conquered a part of the city. Then peace was finally con- 
cluded in Miinster and Osnabriick (1648 A.D.), according to the terms 
of which the three principal religious parties — Catholics, Lutherans 
and Reformers — ought to enjoy equal rights, the Protestants to 
recover the ecclesiastic property they had possessed before the year 
1624, Sweden to obtain the province of Pomerania, and France 
that of Alsace. 

The first effects of this lengthy war were dreadful. Germany 
lost many milhons of inhabitants by it ; whole countries were utterly 
desolated, many towns ruined, and civilization for a long time 
retarded. The menacing preponderance of the Spanish-Austrian 
dynasty, however, was destroyed by it, the power of the papacy 
broken, and the tyranny of the Church annihilated. Free investi- 
gation, especially in religious matters, was secured, a path opened 
to the sciences, and the road to civil liberty prepared. 

g 78. Switzerland. Zwingli. Calvin. Unitarians. 

Contemporaneous with Luther, Ulricus Zwingli rose as a re- 
former in Switzerland. He was a parson in the village of Einsiedeln, 
which was frequently visited by large crowds of pilgrims, who wor- 
shiped the image of the Virgin Mary there. In his sermons he 
boldly censured the abuses of the Christian Church, especially the 

What country did the former invade in winter ? How did he succeed at 
Jankowitz? "What States did he then invade? What of Ferdinand and the 
congress ? What was the last exploit of the Swedes ? Where was peace con- 
cluded? Mention its principal articles. What provinces should Sweden and 
France obtain ? Give an account of the first effects of the war. What advan- 
tages did it afford ? With regard to Spain and Austria; to the papacy; to the 
Church; (o free investigation; to sciences and civil liberty? \ 78. What other 
reformer was a contempoi'ary of Luther ? What office did he perform in Ein- 
siedeln ? What abuses did he censure ? 

(12) 



178 

nuisance of the indulgences, the worship of reHcs, and the pil- 
grimages. He also called upon the bishop of Constance to abolish 
these abuses, but without success. Finally, he was called by the 
government of the canton of Ziirich to that city (1518 A. D.), and 
here his higher efficiency commenced. 

At that time the seller of indulgences, Bertihardiii Samson, came 
to Switzerland and gathered a large amount of money. Zwingli 
effected the prohibition of this traffic in Ziirich. In spite of the 
invectives of his adversaries, especially among the friars, he con- 
tinued to censure the prevailing abuses of the Church, and defended 
his doctrine in two public disputations with such good success that 
the government encouraged him to continue preaching the gospel. 
The reformation gradually went on. The images were removed 
from the churches, processions and pilgrimages abrogated, the con- 
vents abolished, matrimony allowed to the priests (Zwingli married 
Arma Reinhard'), the mass discarded, and a simple celebration of 
the Lord's Supper instituted, at which, according to Zwingli's doc- 
trine, bread and wine were distributed only as typical of the body 
and blood of Jesus. 

In other cantons similar reforms were accomplished. In Geneva 
they were effected by the urgency of y^o/m Calvin. He was very 
active and zealous in the discharge of his official duties, but he was 
also obstinate and sullen, sometimes even cruel. He caused the 
learned Michael Servetus, when traveling through the territory of 
Geneva, to be taken prisoner, because in a Latin book he had ex- 
pressed more liberal views on the Trinity than others. Calvin de- 
nounced him as a heretical teacher who deserved capital punish- 
ment, and Servetus was burned. He also taught that God had pre- 
destined some men, without their merit, to eternal bHss, and innum- 
erable others, even children, without their guilt, to everlasting dam- 
nation. 

In Switzerland the reformation was also resisted, principally in 
the interior cantons. They marched their troops into the field; 
the reformed cantons were disunited ; Berne hesitated ; Ziirich alone 
opposed the Catholics, at Cappel, with a small corps, which com- 

Upon whom did he also call for their abolishment ? Where was he called 
to ? What of Bernhardin Samson ? Where was his traffic prohibited ? What 
abuses were reformed ? What of Anna Reinhard ? Of the Lord's Supper ? 
Who was the reformer in Geneva ? What was his character ? How did he proceed 
against Michael Servetus ? What did he teach concerning predestination ? What 
cantons resisted the reformation ? 



179 

menced the attack (1531 A. D.) Later, the main corps arrived; 
the troops were tired, but ZwingH, who accompanied them as chap- 
lain, admonished them to fight, crying : " I, at least, will join these 
honest men, and die with them, or help to save them ! " They 
obeyed his advice, but were beaten. Zwingli, who was one of the 
last on the battle-field, was first hit with a stone, then wounded with 
a spear. As he refiised to invoke the saints, he was killed, and his 
corpse quartered and burned. The reformers had to submit to a 
disadvantageous peace, and in many places the Catholic ritual was 
re-established. 

In the southern part of Switzerland, Socinus, a pious priest, had 
uttered the belief that there is only one God, and that Jesus is not 
his equal in essence, but that his nature was human. He gained 
■many adherents, who called themselves Socinians or Unitarians. 
They were cruelly persecuted by their Catholic governors, and 
finally expelled. The papal legate even ordered'their children to 
be taken from them ; but in this he was opposed by the govern- 
ment. In the middle of the winter, deprived of all their property, 
they, with their wives and children, were forced to pass over the 
Alps, which were covered with ice and snow. They wandered to 
Zurich and implored the inhabitants, who had already been con- 
verted to the Reformed religion, to aftbrd them a quiet home ; but 
even here they were turned away, being considered atheists. They 
finally found an asylum in the forests of Poland, and in North 
America. 

\ 79. Spain. Charles I. Philip II. Secession of the 
Netherlands. William of Orange. 

Charles I. (V.), as king of Spain, waged several wars against 
Francis L, king of France (see § 80). He also undertook two cam- 
paigns against Tunis, and chastised Schereddin Barbarossa for the 
piracies he committed on Spain, delivered 10,000 Christian captives 
and rendered the piratical State tributary to his government. Weary 

Give the narrative of the conflict at Cappel. In what character did Zwingli 
accompany the troops of Ziirich ? What was his fate ? Why was he Icilled ? 
What did Socinus teach ? What were his adherents called i How were they 
treated by the Catholic governor and the papal legate ? Narrate their migration. 
How were they received in Ziirich ? Why? Where did they find an asylum ? \ 79. 
Against whom did Charles I. of Spain undertake wars ? Why against Tunis ? How 
many Christian slaves did he deliver ? Where did he withdraw to ? 



180 

of life, he retired to the monastery of St. Juste, in Spain, where he 
died, dissatisfied with himself and the world (1558 A. D.) 

In the Netherlands, which country at that time belonged to 
Spain, he persecuted the Protestants. During his reign at least 
50,000 were killed. His son, Philip II., established the Inquisition, 
and thereby caused revolts; the States- General protested, and 40a 
noblemen concluded a league for the purpose of defending their 
constitutional rights, and of opposing the Inquisitional tribunal 
(1565 A. D.) They presented to the duchess Margaret, 
Philip's sister, who governed the Netherlands in his name, 
a petition of the nation, in which they demanded the abro- 
gation of the religious edicts, and the assembling of the States- 
General. As Margaret turned pale at the sight of their number, a 
counselor whispered to her not to be afraid of a crowd of beggars • 
(gueux). The confederates chose this nickname as their party- 
name, and called'themselves Gueuses. When Philip was informed of 
the revolt, he ordered Margaret to employ the force of arms, declar- 
ing that he would rather not govern at all than to rule heretics. She 
conquered the malcontents after a short resistance, and behaved 
cruelly towards them ; by her orders the Protestant churches were 
destroyed, gibbets erected from their rafters, and hundreds sus- 
pended on them in every town. 

Now Duke Alva, the royal hangman, arrived at the head of a well- 
organized army, and took Margaret's place. He had received 
unlimited power from the king. He took the chiefs of the nobility, 
the earls Egmont and Horn, prisoners, and executed them. An 
uncounted number of other victims followed them ; even the sick 
were dragged from the hospitals to the gallows. In Harlem the 
heroic citizens, two-by-two, were thrown into the sea. He boasted, 
during the six years of his administration, of having executed 18,000 
inhabitants with the executioner's axe, on funeral-piles, etc. The 
goods of the killed and proscribed were confiscated ; they yielded 

Where did he persecute the Protestants ? How many were killed ? What 
did Philip II. establish ? Who protested against the Inquisition ? What did 
they demand from Margaret ? What party-name did they assume ? By what 
incident was the name " Gueux " applied to them ? What did Philip order 
Margaret to employ ? What did he declare ? How did she deal with the sub- 
dued Protestants ? By whom was she succeeded? What was Alva's power? 
What chiefs did he take prisoners ? What was their doom ? How many followed 
them ? What of the sick ? Of the citizens of Harlem ? How many did he 
boast of having executed ? What of their goods ? 



181 

to the king annually at least twelve million dollars profit. After all^ 
a heavy tax overturned Alva's terrorism. Besides the hundredth 
part of the whole property, he commanded the inhabitants to pay 
the twentieth part of their immovable, and the tenth part of their 
movable goods, as often as they were sold. The nation rose, and 
declared William of Orange stadt-holder. Though the southern 
provinces, in which the Catholic creed prevailed, withdrew from 
the northern, William united the latter into a confederation, which 
declared itself independent from Spain, and elected WiUiam as 
its chief (1581 A. D.) Soon after the prince was shot at by an 
assassin, who desired to earn the price Philip had promised to pay 
for William's head. WiUiam had sacrificed his considerable wealth 
for the happiness of his country, and died in noble poverty. But 
his son Maurice succeeded him as stadt-holder ; both he and his 
brother Henry resisted the king bravely, and at last Spain was com- 
pelled to acknowledge the independence of the Netherlands, by the 
Westphalian peace (1648 A. D.) To this happy issue of the combat 
much was contributed by the high-minded Olden Barneveld, who led 
the repubhc in. the council, and by Tromp, the naval hero. 

Philip II. also conquered Portugal, deprived it of its privileges, 
and exhausted it by his extortions. During his reign he lost most 
of his foreign possessions by the EngHsh and Dutch. Spain, too, 
through him, lost the rest of its liberty. His furious fanaticism kept 
up the religious war in France, incited him to war with England, 
and caused a bloody insurrection of the Moors in Spain, and a war 
with the Turks (1571 A. D.), who supported the Moors, but were 
completely defeated by Don Juan at Lepanto. At last the tyrant 
died from a hideous sickness, called the " lousy " disease. He left 
to the State an enormous burden of debts. Under Philip IV. Por- 
tugal became independent from Spain (1640 A. D.) 

\ 80. France. Wars of Francis I. and Charles I. War 

Against the Huguenots. St. Bartholomew. 

Henry IV. Edict of Nantes. 

When the imperial throne of Germany became vacant by the 

How much was the annual profit of the king ? What taxes did he charge on 
movable and immovable goods? What was the effect of this tyranny? Who 
was the leader of the insurrection ? What was he declared? How did he die ? 
What had he sacrificed ? What of his sons Maurice and Henry ? Of Olden 
Barneveld and Tromp ? When was Spain compelled to acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of the Netherlands ? What of Portugal ? By whom did Philip II. 
lose his foreign possessions ? What of his fanaticism ? How did he go to de- 
struction? What of Portugal under Philip IV.? 



182 

death of Maximilian, Francis /., of France, and Charles I. (V.),. 
were competitors for the crown ; and on the success of the latter, 
the mutual claims of the two princes on each other's dominions,, 
especially in Italy and the Low Countries, soon made them declared 
enemies. Francis waged four wars against Charles V. In the first 
war the duke of Bourbon, his best general, who had received 
repeated affronts from the king, hi§ master, deserted to Charles, and 
was by him invested with the. chief command of his forces. Francis 
was defeated by him in the battle of Pavia and taken prisoner, and 
his army almost totally destroyed. The duke gave all Italy up to 
pillage. To obtain the greater plunder, he marched upon Rome ; 
the city was attacked and carried by storm. Although Bourbon fell 
in the assault, the pillage was universal, neither convents nor 
churches being spared. From seven to eight thousand Romans 
were massacred the first day, and the most barbarous ravages of the 
Goths and Huns did not surpass those of the army of the first 
prince in Christendom. In the second war, the admiral of Francis, 
Andrew Doria, deserted to the emperor, delivered his native town,. 
Genoa, from French dominion, and gave it a republican constitu- 
tion. Francis lost his possessions in Italy. 

Aside from this his conflicts with the Hugueiiots took up much 
of his time. They were followers of the Reformed Church, in 
Switzerland, and their name was probably derived from the word 
" Eidgenossen " (confederates), as the Swiss, among whom the Re- 
formed Church had the most members, were usually called so. In 
France their number was very considerable, even among the nobil- 
ity, and at the royal court many of them were found. But Francis 
persecuted them cruelly ; he even, during a solemn procession, 
caused several of them to be burned. 

Under his son, Henry II., executions by fire frequently occurred. 
Under the sons of the latter these persecutions turned into open 
warfare. The Reformers, indeed, had bad success in several cam- 
paigns; their religious liberty, however, was always increasing, and 

§ 80. "\Miat caused the enmity between Francis I. and Charles I. ? How 
many wars did Francis I. wage against Charles ? What of the duke of Bourbon ? 
Where did he defeat and capture Francis ? What city did he carry by storm ? 
What misery was inflicted upon it ? How many inhabitants were killed ? Who 
deserted in the second war ? What constitution did Doria give to Genoa ? 
W^hat did Francis lose ? What is the origin of the name " Huguenots ? " How 
were the Huguenots treated by Francis? By Henry II.? Into what did the 
persecution turn under his sons ? What of the religious liberty of the Huguenots ?' 



183 

finally peace was made. Even a marriage was to be consummated 
between prince Henry of Navarre^ who confessed the Reformed 
creed, and the sister of king Charles IX. But, probably, thereby 
the vigilance of the Reformers was only to be lulled to rest. The 
noblest of them were allured to Paris and lodged in the neighbor- 
hood of admiral Coligfiy^ the venerable leader of the Reformers, 
The nuptials were celebrated on the ill-famed night of Bartholomew 
(Aug. 24, 1572 A. D.) At a signal given by the king, all Hugue- 
nots in Paris were murdered. The royal guard, the city militia, 
and many inhabitants vied with each other in fury and cruelty. 
The Catholics wore white crosses as badges on their hats, the 
windows of their dwellings were illuminated. In the royal castle the 
blood was drizzling in all corners. The murderers penetrated to the 
very bed-chambers of the new-married queen ; she fled to her sister, 
and saw at the door a nobleman stabbed close to her. Charles him- 
self fired at the fugitives. The next day he walked with his court- 
iers through the streets, looking at the decomposing corpses, and as 
they turned away disgusted from Coligny's corpse, he jokingly said : 
"A dead enemy always smells nicely." His mother, with her 
court-ladies, also passed through the streets, and rejoiced at the 
hideous sight. The slaughter in Paris lasted one week; 5,000 
persons lost their lives. Charles also sent his orders for slaughter to 
the provinces ; only a few governors refused to execute them. In all, 
at least 40,000 Huguenots were killed. Henry of Navarre was 
compelled to forswear his creed ; as he hesitated to do so, Charles 
threatened to kill him ; after this he turned Catholic. The pope 
celebrated the news of the Saint Bartholomew massacre like a holy- 
day, and had a medal stamped to commemorate it. 

But the Reformers, nevertheless, remained unsubdued. They 
were for eight months besieged in Rochelle, where they defended 
themselves courageously, and by a new treaty of peace compelled 
their former rights to be confirmed. Charles, tormented by 

What marriage was to be consummated ? Who was allured to Paris ? In 
whose neighborhood were the Huguenots lodged ? In what night were the 
nuptials celebrated ? Give the narrative of the events of that night. What were 
the badges of the Catholics ? What happened in the royal castle ? What of the 
king ? What did he say when he saw the corpse of Coligny ? What of his 
mother ? How long did the slaughter in Paris continue ? What of the gov- 
ernors in the provinces ? How many Huguenots, in all, were killed ? What 
was Henry of Navarre compelled to forswear? What of the pope? Were the 
Huguenots subdued ? Where were they besieged ? 



.184 

terrible remorses, died (1574 A. D.) His brother Henry III., a 
faint-hearted debauchee, again began war. Henry of Navarre, 
recanting his apostacy, became chief of the Huguenots. The king, 
pressed hard by their arms, granted them almost equal rights 
with the Catholics. After his murder (1589 A. D.) Henry was pro- 
claimed king in the camp of the Huguenots; he totally defeated 
his adversaries at Ivry (1590 A. D.), but comprehending that a 
Huguenot never could become king of a Catholic country, he for- 
swore his faith once more, and went again to mass. Owing to this 
change of creed, he was generally acknowledged king (1594 A. D.) 
With him the house of Bourbon commenced to reign. 

Henry, assisted by his excellent minister and friend, Sully, re- 
stored the prosperity of France. Sully not only discharged its 
debts, but collected also a great treasure. The charges of the peo- 
ple were considerably diminished. Most of all, he took care of 
agriculture, the source of national wealth. The Seine and Loire 
were connected by a canal. Henry, by the edict of Nantes, secured 
to the Huguenots the free exercise of their religion, and an equal 
claim with the Catholics to all offices and dignities (1598 A. D.) 
The stabs of a knife in the hands of the fanatic Francis Ravaillac 
put an end to his life (16 10 A. D.) He was the best and most be- 
loved king of France. 

Louis XIII., by the advice of his minister, Richelieu, seized from 
the Huguenots all their places of security. Rochelle was obstinately 
defended. Fifteen thousand men perished by hunger. The fortress 
was demolished. He, however, granted to the subdued the free 
exercise of their religion. Sully left, mourning the corruption of 
his court. 

§ 81. England and Scotland. Henry VIII. Elizabeth. 
Mary Stuart. Charles I. 

Henry VIII. (i 509-1 547 A. D.) founded the English or Epis- 
copal Church, the tenets of which are between the Catholic and the 
Protestant. For divorcing his first wife, and marrying Anne Boleyn, 

What of Henry III. ? Who became chief of the Huguenots ? What of him, 
when the king was murdered ? What of his adversaries ? On what condition 
was he generally acknowledged king? What house commenced to reign 
with him ? \'VTiat of Sully and his actions ? What did Henry secure to the 
Huguenots ? How did he lose his life ? What of Louis XIII. and the Hugue- 
nots? What of Rochelle ? What did he grant to them ? §81. What Church 
did Henry VIII. found ? Why was he excommunicated ? 



185 

he was excommunicated, a measure which induced him to break off 
all allegiance to Rome, and to declare himself supreme head of the 
English Church. He carried his reforms into execution by capital 
punishment, which he inflicted, without discriminating between any 
creed, on Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists. He put even women 
and maidens to the flames, e. g., Anna Askue, a lady distinguished 
for youth and beauty, who had slightly doubted the real presence 
of Jesus in the Holy Supper. With the same tyranny he dealt 
with his wives. Three years after having married Anne Boleyn he 
brought her from the throne to the scafibld, and married Jane Sey- 
mour, and after her death, Anne of Cleves, from whom he soon 
procured a divorce, taking Catharine Howard for his wife ; but on 
a charge of dissolute conduct she was also brought to the scaffold. 
His last wife was Catharine Parr, and even she came near being 
brought to the block on a charge of heresy, when he died (1547 
A. D.) His minister, Cromwell, on whose recommendation he had 
married Anne of Cleves, was, as the king began to dislike her, un- 
justly condemned and executed on a charge of treason. The cele- 
brated Wolsey was also accused of treason, and stripped of all his 
possessions. He died of a broken heart (1530 A. D.) The vir- 
tuous chanceUor Thomas Morus also had to perish on the scaffold, 
because he declared Henry's first-born daughter to be entitled to 
the inheritance of the crown. 

The cowardly parHament acted according to the pleasure of the 
despot, declared his marriages vaUd or invalid, his daughters legiti- 
mate or bastards, as he demanded it ; and even resolved that he 
was permitted to make any law without their agreement. Accord- 
ing to his last will, his son Edward was to be first heir to the throne, 
after him Mary, and then Elizabeth. 

After him Edward VI. governed, under guardianship. The 
duke of Northumberland was successful in persuading him to nomi- 
nate as his successor his daughter-in-law, Jane Grey, excluding 
thereby the legitimate heiress, Mary. Jane was queen only ten 

Why did he declare himself supreme head of the English Church? How 
did he carry his reforms into execution ? Give an example of his cruelty. 
How did he deal with his wives ? With Anne Boleyn ? With Anne of Cleves ? 
With Catharine Howard? With Cromwell? With Wolsey? With Thomas 
Morus ? How did the parliament act ? What was his last will with regard to 
the succession ? Whom did Edward VI. nominate as his successor ? By whom 
was he persuaded to do so ? What of Jane Grey, her husband, and her father- 
in-law? 



186 

days. Her father-in-law, and herself with her husband, died on 
the scaffold (1553 A. D.) Mary, Henry's daughter from his first 
wife, then became queen (1553-1558 A. D.) Being a Catholic, 
and governed by her husband, Philip I., king of Spain, she re- 
established the mass, and subdued England to the pope. During 
three years 270 Protestants died in the flames. She was called 
"bloody" Mary. 

Queen Elizabeth (1558- 1603 A.D.), restored the Episcopal Church. 
Philip wooed her, and meeting with a refusal, became her implac- 
able enemy. He armed, against her and the Netherlands, the 
" Invincible Armada," as he called the fleet. It numbered 160 
sails, and carried 2,630 cannons and 30,000 of the bravest Spanish 
troops on board. Thirty thousand others were to invade England 
from the Netherlands ; Elizabeth and her Church were to be anni- 
hilated in one campaign. The pope had blessed the expedition, 
and offered the sovereignty of England as the conqueror's prize. 
Elizabeth was not discouraged ; she visited the seaports in person, 
superintended the preparations for defense, and on horseback ad- 
dressed the troops. Lord Howard, of Effingham, was appointed 
admiral of the fleet. Drake, Hawkins and Frobisher, the most 
renowned seamen in Europe, served under him, while an army of 
45,000 men was organized for the defense of the coast and. the cap- 
ital. One-half of the large, unwieldy Spanish ships were destroyed 
by storms; the other by the English and Dutch (1589 A. D.) The 
defeat of the "Armada " was regarded as the triumph of the Prot- 
estant cause; it raised the courage of the Netherlands and the 
Huguenots in France, and destroyed the decisive influence Spain 
had long maintained in the affairs of Europe. The English con- 
tinued the naval v/ar, and captured the rich cargoes of many Span- 
ish ships. 

At this time England held the balance of power in Christen- 
dom. No monarch of England ever surpassed Elizabeth in firm- 

Who succeeded her? Who was Mary's husband? What did she re-es- 
tablish ? How many Protestants were burned in three years ? What was she 
called ? What Church did Elizabeth restore ? Why did Philip II. become her 
implacable enemy ? WHiat fleet did he arm against her ? Give an account of the 
" Armada." How did Elizabeth act in this situation ? Who was admiral of the 
fleet ? What seamen served under him ? Who was to defend the coast and 
London? How was the "Armada" destroyed? What happy results did its 
destruction cause for the Protestants and Huguenots, and what harm to Spain ? 
What of Elizabeth's government, compared with that of other sovereigns ? 



187 



ness and address, and none ever conducted the government with 
more uniform success. She provided for the welfare of England ; 
yet her pohtical maxims were arbitrary in the extreme, and she had 
Httle regard for the liberties of her people, or the privileges of par- 
liament. It was not allowable for two or three persons to read the 
Bible together, or to converse in company on rehgion. 
' But the darkest stain of her history, was the unjust execution of 
Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland. Educated in France, m the 
CathoUc faith, Mary was regarded by the Cathohc States of Europe 
as the rightful claimant of the Enghsh throne, bemg a grandniece 
of Henry VIII. ; she assumed, therefore, the arms and tide of 
Queen of England. When she returned to Scodand her husband 
was murdered, and some months later she married the Earl of 
Bothwell, the principal author of the crime. The Protestant Scots, 
already hating her on account of her religion, took her prisoner, 
and forced her to dismiss Bothwell, and to resign the crown to her 
infant son, James VI. She fled into England, and threw herself 
upon the protection of EHzabeth, her deadly enemy. But Eliza- 
beth afraid of her claims for the Enghsh throne, retained the un- 
happy Mary a prisoner, let her languish nineteen years m captivity, 
prevented her reconciliation with the Scots, and treated every 
attempt of the prisoner to escape from her fetters as a crime. 
When the fanatic Babington finally attempted to deliver Mary by 
kiUing her rival, the parliament passed an act authorizing her trial. 
She was accused by her enemies of having been cognizant of the 
crime, and, without being convicted, she was hastily beheaded 
(1C87 A D.) Elizabeth was compelled, accor dm g to the demand 
of the nation, to declare James VI., son of Mary, her successor 
He succeeded with the tide of James I. England and Scodand 
were thus united under one sovereign, and henceforth the two 
co-untries received the common designation of "Great Britam." 
~ But what of her political m^^d^i^^T^What of re^dh^^^hT^le, and of 
conversing on religion ? What is the darkest stain of her history ? How did 
the Catholic States regard the claim of Mary to the Enghsh throne? Why ? 
What did she assume? What of her husband in Scotland? Whom did she 
marry after his death ? What did the Scots force her to do ? Whose protection 
did she ask for ? How did Elizabeth deal with her ? How long was Mary her 
prisoner^ What did Elizabeth prevent? How did she treat every attempt of 
the prisoner to escape? What act did the parliament pass when Babington 
attempted to deliver Mary? Of what did her enemies accuse her? Was she 
convicted > What washer fate? Whom did Elizabeth declare her successor? 
Under what king were England and Scotland united ? Under what common des- 
ignation ? 



188 

During the government of Elizabeth Francis Drake sailed 
around the earth (15 77-1580 A. D.) Since Magellan, nobody had 
ventured on such an enterprise. 

Charles I., the son of James, immediately after his accession, 
•came into conflict with the parliament, which he suddenly dissolved 
because it refused to vote the supplies demanded by him. He then 
convoked a second, third and fourth parliament, and also dissolved 
each one of them for the same reason. Meanwhile, in various 
illegal ways, he levied money without the consent of parliament. 
His chief political counselor was the earl of Strafford, the most 
formidable enemy of the liberties of the people, and his adviser in 
ecclesiastical affairs was archbishop Laud. His attempt to introduce 
the Episcopal form of worship into Scotland (1637 A. D.) drove the 
Scotch to open rebellion, and they immediately covenanted to 
•defend the religion, the laws and the liberties of their country. 
After eleven years (1640 A. D.) he again convoked a parliament, but 
the House of Commons, instead of listening to his demands for 
supplies, began with presenting to him the public grievances, under 
three heads, viz., of privileges of which parliament had been de- 
prived, of illegal taxes, and of violence done to the cause of religion. 
Not long afterwards Strafford and Laud were sent to the Tower on 
several charges. The former was brought to trial on a charge of 
treason, and was condemned and beheaded. Five years later Laud 
suffered the same fate. 

The difficulties between the king and parliament at length 
reached such a climax that he left London (1642 A. D.), resolving 
to stake his claims on the hazards of war. The adherents of parlia- 
ment were not unprepared for the contest. On the king's side were 
ranged most of the nobility, called " cavaliers ;" on that of parliament, 
Puritans (Presbyterians and Independents), and other Dissenters, 
called "roundheads," from their practice of cropping the hair. 
Chief commanders of the parliamentary army were the earl of 
Essex, Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, head of the Independents. 
The war was carried on for several years with varied success, but 

Who, under the government of Elizabeth, sailed around the earth ? How 
many parliaments did Charles I. dissolve? Why? Who were his two coun- 
selors ? Why did the Scots rebel ? What did they covenant ? What three 
grievances did the new parliament present to the king ? What of Strafford and 
Laud ? What did the king at length hazard ? Who was on the king's side ? Who 
on that of parliament ? Who were the chief commanders of the parliamentary 
army ? 



189 

finally the battle of Naseby, northeast of London, gained by the 
parliamentary forces, decided the contest. Charles threw himself 
into the hands of his Scotch subjects ; but the latter treated him as 
a prisoner, and delivered him up to the commissioners of parliament. 
Under the influence of Cromwell, the House of Commons instituted 
a high court of justice to try the king for treason, which, on the 
charge of having levied war against the parhament, condemned him 
to death (1649 A. D). The principal cause of his downfall was 
the duplicity and insincerity with which he acted in his public 
character. Such was his want of fidelity in his engagements that 
parliament could never confide in his promises. 

The Scots took no part in the trial of the king, and after his 
death proclaimed his son, Charles II., their sovereign • but the royal 
army was entirely defeated in the desperate battle of Worcester 
(1651 A. D.); Charles escaped with difficulty. Under the controlling 
influence of Cromwell, the House of Commons abohshed the 
monarchy and the House of Lords, established a repubHcan govern- 
ment called the Commotiwealth of England, and bestowed the title 
and office of Protector on Cromwell (1653 A. D.) 

I 82. Northern Realms. S^^reden. Gustavus Vasa. 

Prussia. 

Charles I., king of Denmark, and brother-in-law of Charles V., 
according to the union of Calmar (see § 58), reclaimed the govern- 
ment of Sweden which his father had lost. But the country hated 
him on account of his cruelty. Favored by the anathema of the 
pope, he subdued it by force of arms (1520 A. D.), and, during the 
festivities of the coronation, caused six hundred of the grandees to 
be seized and executed. Gustavus Vasa, whose father and brother- 
in-law lost their Hves in this slaughter, escaped from the prison in 
Denmark, to which the tyrant had dragged him and other hostages. 
He went into the service of the drovers, came with them to 
Liibeck, and from there to Sweden. Here he passed the nights 

In what battle was the contest decided ? Where did the king seek refuge ? 
What did the Scotch do ? What did the House of Commons institute ? What 
was the verdict of the court ? What was the principal cause of the downfall of 
Charles ? Whom did the Scots proclaim their king ? With what result ? What 
did the House of Commons abolish, and what establish ? Who became Pro- 
tector of the realm ? § 82. What country did Christian II. reclaim ? Why did 
the country hate him ? How did he then proceed ? Give a proof of his perfidy 
and cruelty. What hostage escaped from prison ? 



190 

sometimes in fields of rye, sometimes in the woods, for he was pro- 
scribed. He then entered into the service of a rich miner, but soon 
had to fly again from Christian's spies. After having escaped from 
many other dangers, he came to the valiant mountaineers of Dale- 
carlia, represented to them the adversity under which their native 
country was suffering, reminded them of the heroic deeds of their 
ancestors, and sought to encourage them, with his assistance, to 
deliver it from the bondage of the despot. They were at first 
undetermined, and permitted him to depart without granting the 
desired aid. But when they received new reports of the cruelty of 
Christian, they sent couriers after him, who overtook him on his 
flight to Norway, and he returned in triumph. They began, under 
his command, to fight the king, and, aided by the Hansa, everywhere 
defeated his troops. Gustavus was elected governor. He besieged 
Stockholm. At last, when the Danes themselves deposed the des- 
pot, that city also capitulated, and Gustavus was universally declared 
kmg of Sweden (1523 A. D.) He established the Protestant 
religion, received also the delegates of the townships and peasantry 
into the States- General, and promoted arts and sciences, commerce 
and maritime power. 

Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in' 
Prussia, advised by Luther, renounced the doctrine of the papacy, 
then concluded a treaty with the king of Poland (1525 A. D.), by 
which he obtained Prussia as a Polish fief, and introduced the 
Reformation into this country. 



SECOND OHAPTER-HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION. 



§ 83. The Protestant and Catholic Church. Synod of 
Trent. Order of the Jesuits. 

Luther's doctrine spread through a large part of Germany, 
especiaUy in Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, 
Denmark, and also in Sweden. In Austria, Bohemia, Hungaria and 
Polonia it also had many adherents. 

The reformed reHgion, according to the assertions of Zwingli 

Give an account of Vasa's wanderings. What of tlie Dalecarlians ? Whom 
did they fight ? Who aided them ? With what success ? What of Gustavus ? 
What was he declared ? How did he rule ? Who advised Albert of Branden- 
burg to renounce popery ? With whom did he conclude a treaty ? Under what 
limitation did he obtain Prussia ? • What faith did he introduce ? ^ 83. Through 
what countries did Luther's doctrine spread ? Through which the Reformed faith ? 



191 

and Calvin, penetrated from Switzerland into France, and the coun- 
tries bordering the Rhine, as far as Holland and Scotland. In 
England the High Episcopal Church became predominant, retain- 
ing the ecclesiastical government and most of the rites of the 
Catholic Church. 

I Soon differences arose between the new denominations of the 
Church. Luther already bitterly opposed ZwingU's view regarding 
the Lord's Supper, and the endeavor of the landgrave of Hesse to 
arrange a religious conference between them was fruidess. By 
Luther's obstinacy every attempt at an amicable compromise' was 
frustrated. Neither did he keep the promise of mutual friendship 
with which they had parted. He wrote with bitterness against 
Zwingli. These internal quarrels even caused bloodshed in some 
places, e. g., in Holland. The Presbyterians, who were also fight- 
ing for poUtical liberty, were violently persecuted, many imprisoned, 
others banished or, like the noble-minded Olden Barneveld, exe- 
cuted. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 187 Catholics were 
ripped up and boiled ahve. Henry VHI. and Calvin were also 
cruel (see § 78 and § 8i). ■ 

The state of the Catholic Church grew worse and worse, and 
the council of Trent did not remedy it. The synod lasted eight 
years in all. It was evident that its decrees only tended to enlarge 
the papal power, and to humble the Protestants, against whom it 
incessantly hurled its anathemas. 

The life of the popes also continued to be the same as before. 
Alexander VI. (1492-1503 A. D.) was the most cruel of all popes, 
and an outcast of mankind. He, his son Caesar, and his daughter, 
Lucretia Borgia, dispatched their enemies by poison and poniard. 
He aided the ambitious son to enlarge his dominion in Italy. 
Finally he perished himself by the poison he had prepared for 
another. He instituted the censorship of books. Leo X. was the 
notorious adversary of Reformation. Paul III. anathematized the 
heretics, and sent troops against them. Jules IIL appointed a 
keeper of monkeys as a cardinal, because he was his favorite. 

What Church in England ? What rite of the Church caused a difference 
between Luther and Zwingli ? How did the former behave towards Zwingli ? 
How were the Presbyterians in Holland, who were also fighting for political 
liberty, treated? What of Queen Elizabeth, Henry VHI. and Calvin? What 
was the state of the Catholic Church ? The life of the popes ? What of Alex- 
ander VI.? What did he institute ? What of Leo X. ? Paul III. ? Jules TIL? 
Paul IV.? 



192 

Paul IV. was ambitious, and enlarged the list of the prohibited 
books. Sixtus V., though enlightened, was cruel and despotic. 
Gregory VIII. celebrated the St. Bartholomew massacre. — A new 
institute of the Catholic Church in this period is the Order of the 
Society of y^esus. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, when a. 
young man, did military service in the army of Ferdinand the 
CathoHc. He was wounded during a siege, and fell sick. Being 
confined to his bed, he excited his imagination, already disposed to 
fanaticism, even more by reading odd legends. Then he instituted 
the Society of Jesus (1540 A. D.), the members of which, besides 
the three usual monastic vows, celibacy, poverty and obedience, 
pledged themselves to unconditionally obey the pope, especially in 
matters of heresy and infidelity. Their principal object was to 
combat Protestant doctrine, and to suppress mental liberty. The 
General of the Order resided in Rome. They entered public life 
in a thousand different forms. They made their appearance as 
teachers of the youth, as preachers, nurses of the sick, inquisitors of 
faith, missionaries, confessors, ministers of States, and even as 
tradesmen. Among the laymen they also organized fraternities, 
which even princes and their sons joined. Their chief aim was to 
captivate rich young men. The fortunes of such victims became 
the prey of their society. Their Order spread rapidly. It was 
admitted into all Catholic countries; it entered even Hindostan, 
China and Japan. The number of its members was very consider- 
able. In the eighteenth century it numbered at one time twenty- 
two thousand. In the council of Trent it carried the issue. In 
Asia it established the Inquisitional Tribunal. In Germany its prin- 
cipal seats were Munich and Vienna; Bavaria was called its para- 
dise. It fostered the belief in miracles, arranged painful exercises 
of penance for the stupid populace, and permitted the rich and pow- 
erful everything they longed for. Later, the education of the Cath- 
olic youth in the higher institutes was secured by the Jesuits, 
whereby they obtained the greatest influence in civil society. They 

Sixtus v.? Gregory XIII.? What new institute of the Catholic Church 
came into existence ? Who was the founder of the Order i Relate some facts 
of his life when he was a young man. What obligations do the Jesuits take 
besides the usual vows ? What was their obj ect ? In what forms did they enter 
public life ? What did they organize among laymen ? Whom did they chiefly 
try to captivate ? Why ? What about their spreading? What was their number 
at one time ? What did they establish in Asia? , What were their principal seats 
in Germany ? What did they foster ? What did they arrange for tJie populace? 
What did they permit to the rich ? What institutes did they seize ? 



193 

crept into the confidence of the sovereigns, became their confessors 
and counselors, and soon, also, the governors of State affairs. 
Though praise for great scholarship cannot be withheld from indi- 
vidual members of their Order, yet, on the whole, their perform- 
ances were far behind the demands of their age. They were ene- 
mies of enlightenment, of political and religious liberty. Their 
moral code permitted the use of all foul means, even regicide, in 
order to obtain sought-for ends. They possessed immense riches, 
which they acquired in divers ways, even by commercial business. 

§ 84. Arts and Sciences. Raphael. Shakespeare. Cer- 
vantes. Galileo. Nicolas Copernicus. Correc- 
tion of the Calendar. 

While the arts had already attained a high degree of accom- 
plishment, especially in Italy, in sciences a great deal was yet to be 
desired. In Italy flourished the great painters, Michael Angelo 
Buonarotti, Leonardo da Vinci, whose most celebrated picture is the 
"Lord's Supper;" Allegris Correggio, Guido Reni, Titian, and, 
more than all, Raphael Sanzi d'Urbino, called by his contempo- 
raries, "the divine." He was recommended to Pope Julius II., 
who desired several apartments in- the Vatican to be embellished by 
pictures. Thus, by his masterly pencil, a series of large historic 
pictures were created, of which every one occupies one wall, every 
figure being of full length. He also painted much for Leo X. He 
alone was sought to paint everything ; but this demand upon him 
surpassing his strength, he at last outlined only the drawings, and 
left the finishing to be done by his scholars. In this way the 
renowned wall-paintings (lodges) originated in a gallery of the 
Vatican. His last work was the transfiguration of Christ on the 
Mount of Tabor. He died when only thirty-seven years old.(i52o 
A. D.) Plis funeral was the occasion of deep mourning for the 
whole city of Rome, in which the most excellent men shared. He 
was honored by a monument worthy of his name. Michael 
Angelo was also architect; his most celebrated structure is the 



What did they become at the courts of princes ? What of their scholarship ? 
Were they promoters of enlightenment and liberty ? What did their moral code 
permit? How did they acquire riches ? § 84. /i'a/j/. Painters ? Which is the most 
celebrated picture of Leonardo da Vinci ? Which painter was called the divine ? 
How did the historic pictures in the Vatican originate ? How the lodges ? 
What was Raphael's last work ? How was his funeral celebrated ? How was 
his memory honored ? Who was also architect ? 

(13) 



194 

cupola in the church of St. Peter, in Rome. In the Netherlands, 
Paul Rembrandt and the great Rubens painted exceedingly well; 
in Germany, Albert Diirer, Lucas Kranach, and John Holbein, 
whose "Dance of Death," iii Basle, is yet admired; in France, 
Poussin, etc. 

To the most excellent poets belonged : In Italy, Ariosto, who 
composed the charming comic epopee, " II furioso Rolando ; " and 
Torquato Tasso, who wrote the " Jerusalem Delivered ; " in Eng- 
land, Milton, celebrated for his poem, " Paradise Lost ; " Dryden, 
and the incomparable William Shakespeare (t 1616 A. D.) The 
subjects of his great tragedies are partly historical events (Henry 
IV., Richard III.), and partly events of human life (Macbeth, King 
Lear, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet.) Of his many come- 
dies, "A Midsummer Night's Dream," and "The Merry Wives of 
Windsor " are best known. The Spanish poet, Michael Cervantes, 
represented in his comical, satirical novel, " Don Quixote," a vis- 
ionary who mistakes the reality and is fighting for imaginary con- 
ceptions. Dramatic poets : Lope de Vega and Calderon. — Portu- 
gal : Camoens, author of the " I^usiad," was the best poet. He cel- 
ebrates the chief events in the history of Portugal, representing all 
the great achievements of Portuguese heroism. His poem was 
translated into the best modern languages. The German master- 
singers, as they were called, formed special societies, and were 
mostly workmen. The most productive poet among them was 
Hans Sachs, a shoemaker, in Nuremberg. In Switzerland, Nicolas 
of Berne, and Jacob Ruef, of Ziirich, excelled in poetry. 

Among the great number of scholars, are prominent : Melanch- 
ton, who promoted the study of ancient classic literature; Luther, 
whose translation of the Bible is full of vigor and euphony; the 
naturalists, Conrad Gessner and Agricola; the astronomers, Nicolas 
Copernicus of Thorn, and Galileo. The former demonstrated that 
the sun is a fixed star, and that the earth revolves around it regu- 
larly. Galileo, whose views were the same, was therefore accused of 

What part of St. Peter's church did he construct ? — Painters in the Nether- 
lands? In Germany? In France? Poets. 1\\ Italy 1 What poem did Ariosto 
compose? What Torquato Tasso ? In England! What did Milton compose ? 
What of Shakespeare ? Name some of his most celebrated tragedies and com- 
edies. Who was the greatest Spanish poet ? What novel did he write ? What 
is its subject? What of the German master-singers? Which was the most 
productive? What poets in Swizerland ? Scholars. In Germany! What about 
Luther's translation of the Bible? Astronomers! What did Nicolas Copernicus 
demonstrate? How was Galileo treated by the Jesuits and the Inquisition? 



195 

heresy by the monks and Jesuits, and arraigned at the Inquisitional 
Tribunal (1633 A. D.) After having languished several months in 
prison he was compelled, on bended knees, to forswear the truth he 
had taught. When rising, he stamped with his foot, murmuring the 
words: "And still it is moving!" Then he was sentenced to be 
put, for an indefinite term, into the dungeon of the Inquisition, and 
his doctrine condemned, because contradicting the Bible (Joshua X., 
12, 13.) It is probable that the unfortunate old man was also put 
to the rack. 

Pope Gregory XIII. caused the Julian calendar to be cor- 
rected (1582 A. D.) Under Julius Caesar the solar year, which 
only contains 365 days, five hours and about forty-eight minutes, 
was assumed somewhat too great. This error in calculation 
amounted, at the time of that pope, already to ten days. Gregory 
ordered them to be omitted in the chronology. Likewise, three 
intercalary days should be omitted in every four hundred years. 
The Catholics immediately accepted the amended calendar. The 
Protestants refused for a long time, but finally accepted it (1700 
A. D.) The Greeks and Russians are still reckoning according to the 
ancient calendar, and are already twelve days behind the correct 
chronology. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies: Luther, (a) as friar in the convent; {6) as reformer, espe- 
cially as antagonist of the indulgences, and at the diet of Worms. Zwingli, («) 
as parson in Einsiedeln; (d) as reformer; (c) his death. Gustavus Adolphus, (a) 
-reasons of his war against Emperor Ferdinand II.; (6) his victorious course; [c) 
his victory at Leipsic; (d) his death. Henry IV., (a) as prince of Navarre; (3) 
as king. — Describe the discovery of America; the battle of Liitzen; secession of 
the Netherlands; the St. Bartholomew. What heroes distinguished themselves 
in the thirty years' war, and at the delivery of the Netherlands ? When and 
where were the Swedes victorious ? Name the greatest reformers; the most 
renowned discoverers of land; the principal painters and poets of this period. — 
Describe the destruction of the " Invincible Armada." Give the names of some 
North American settlements of this period. What memorable events distin- 
guish the years 1519, 1523, 1546, 1589? The years 1498 and 1598? 1529 and 
1629? 1530 and 1630? 1532 and 1632? 1548 and 1648? How many years 
elapsed between Luther's first appearance until the outbreak of the thirty years' 
war ? In what year did Raphael and Shakespeare die ? 

What was he compelled to forswear ? What words did he murmur ? What 
sentence did the Inquisition pass on him ? Explain the correction of the calen- 
dar under Gregory XIII. How many days was the year 1582 behind the true 
chronology ? How was this error amended ? Who did not accept the correct 
calendar ? 



196 



EIGHTH PERIOD. 



Frorr} the Westphaliaq Peace to the Frenclq Revolution. 

Unlimited Monarchy and Europeaq EquilibriutTj., 

Fron^ 1648 to 1789 A, D. 



riEST OHAPTER-POLITIOAL HISTORY. 



§ 8S. Austria. Sobieski of Poland. Maria Theresa. 
War of Succession. Joseph II. 

Leopold I. was a drowsy sovereign, conserving antiquated in- 
stitutions, a manageable instrument of the ministers, confessors and 
Jesuits, and an enemy of religious and political liberty. Having 
ceded some fortresses on the frontier of Hungary to the Turks with 
whom he waged war, rriany Hungarians, irritated thereby, because 
these fortresses were regarded as bulwarks of their country, con- 
spired against him, but the conspiracy having been detected, they 
were partly executed, and, the whole nation being presumed to be 
guilty, many others, especially Protestants, punished. Indignant at 
this tyranny they took up arms (1678 A. D.); the Turks supported 
them, and besieged Vienna (1683 A. D.) Leopold had to flee. 
The city defended itself with a small garrison and an auxiliary corps 
of the citizens and students during two months against 200,000 
enemies, till John Sobieski, king of Poland, uniting with the impe- 
rial army, defeated the barbarians before the walls, and forced them 
to withdraw. Prince Eugene vanquished the Turks also (1699 A. D.) 
and compelled them to conclude peace. The discontented Hun- 
garians rose again (1701 A. D.), and, finally, by their persevering 
struggles, regained almost all their lost liberties (1711 A. D.) Leo- 
pold and his sons waged war also against Louis XIV. (see § 87). 

One of these sons, Charles VI., arranged in favor of his daughter,. 
Maria Theresa, a solemn ordinance of succession, called " the 

§ 85. What was the character of Leopold I. ? How did he irritate the 
Hungarians? How did he punish them? Give a description of the siege of 
Vienna. Who delivered the city ? Who vanquished the Turks also ? What 
was the final result of the sedition of the Hungarians ? 



197 

Pragmatic Sanction," by which, in default of a male heir, the whole 
Austrian monarchy should devolve upon the female Hneage. This 
ordinance was accepted by the States- General of the monarchy, 
and approved by the European sovereigns; Bavaria alone rejected 
it, claiming to have the next right to the Austrian inheritance. But 
Charles was scarcely cold in death (1740 A. D.) before many other 
princes claimed the rich heritage ; Spain and Bavaria demanded the 
whole, and Frederic II., king of Prussia, some Silesian dukedoms. 
A universal war broke out against Maria Theresa, and was opened 
immediately by Frederic. 

Maria Theresa presented herself, with her infant son in her arms, 
in the diet of the Hungarian nobles, and, having first sworn to pro- 
tect their independence, with tears implored their aid (1741 A. D.) 
The swords of the Hungarians flashed in the air, and their unani- 
mous acclamation was : " Let us die for our sovereign, Maria 
Theresa ! " From all sides the Hungarians drew near and overran 
Bavaria, whose sovereign, Charles VII., had already conquered a 
part of Austria, and had been proclaimed king in Bohemia and 
-emperor in Germany. Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederic II., 
made peace with him (1742 A. D.), and gained the alliance of 
Saxony, England and other countries. Then she energetically con. 
tinued the war against Bavaria and France. Charles lost his land. 
Meanwhile Frederic II., anxious for his conquests, renewed 
the war, conquering Bohemia and Saxony, and Maria Theresa left 
him Silesia for the second time. War with the other enemies con- 
tinued. Enormous armies were fighting each other ; battle followed 
battle ; in Italy, in Germany, and in the Netherlands, blood flowed 
copiously. Beyond Europe war was also raging. Russia also 
entered the lists of combat for Maria Theresa. At that time the 
Turkish Sultan admonished the Christian sovereigns to make peace. 
This was finally brought about at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748 A. D.), Maria 
Theresa retaining almost her whole heritage. She, however, waged 
a seven years' war, especially against Frederic II. (see § 86). 

The noblest-hearted of all Austrian sovereigns was her son, 
Joseph II. ( 1 780-1 790 A. D.) He undertook many important re- 

What do the words " Pragmatic Sanction " mean ? Why did Charles VI. arrange 
it ? Was it heeded by the European sovereigns ? What did Spain demand ? 
Bavaria ? What Frederic II. ? Who supported Maria Theresa ? What country 
did she cede to Frederic II. ? What sovereigns were her allies ? Who admon- 
ished the combatants to make peace ? What final success had she ? Who was 
her noble-hearted son? 



198 

forms, which were certainly all well meant, though in some points 
too rash. He improved the miUtary concerns, and established a 
wise national economy, not only Hving moderately himself, but 
diminishing also the expenses of his court, and Hmiting the arbi- 
trary power of the public officers. He made milder laws for capital 
crimes, and aboHshed capital punishment. He fostered commerce 
and industry, and promoted agriculture. But his greatest merit was 
his reHgious toleration, his care for enhghtenment, and his love for 
the citizen and peasant. 

He fought courageously for right and enlightenment, against the 
prejudices of the multitude, and against the prerogatives of the 
higher castes. He granted to the Protestants and the Greeks free 
exercise of religion, and protected the Jews against the rigor of 
barbarian laws. He made the Catholic Church independent from 
the Holy See, and abolished a great number of convents, the prop- 
erty of which he devoted to the care of souls, and to the instruc- 
tion of the youth. Lastly, he abrogated censure, and granted 
general liberty of thought. 

The people were astonished by the bold reformer, and Pope 
Pius VI. did an unprecedented thing. He went himself to Vienna 
in order to remonstrate. But Joseph persisted in his enactments. 
He went even farther. In his States he broke the yoke of servi- 
tude, abrogated the excessive socage service, gave the tenants a 
State- Attorney against the oppression of the landlords, and ordained 
equable taxation. 

By these reforms he excited the nobility and priests to violent 
resistance, and the low populace to revolt. They declared him an 
enemy to religion, and accused him of having violated the constitu- 
tional rights of divers lands. Insurrections broke out in Hungary 
and the Lowlands, and the latter declared themselves independent 
of Austria (1789 A. D.) 

§ 86. Prussia. Frederic II. Seven Years' "War. Battles 
at Rossbach and Lissa. 

Frederic II., king of Prussia, besides carrying on the Silesian 
wars, waged also the seven years' war against Austria. Maria 
Theresa, not able to get over the loss of Silesia, concluded a secret 

Mention some of his reforms; in his court; with regard to capital crimes, to 
commerce, agriculture, religious toleration; to convents; to servitude; to taxa- 
tion. "Who opposed his reforms? In what countries did insurrections break 
out ? § 86. "What was the origin of the seven years' war ? "Who sided with 
Maria Theresa? 



199 

alliance with most of the German States, with Sweden, Russia and 
even France, for the purpose of annihilating Frederic. England 
only sided with the latter. But the plan was betrayed, and Frederic, 
anticipating his enemies, invaded Bohemia and Saxony, and com- 
pletely conquered the latter country (1756 A. D.) The whole 
Saxon army was captured at Pima. During the next year Frederic 
was defeated at Kolin, and his brave general, Schwerin, lost his life. 
The Austrians extended their raids as far as Berlin. The Swedes 
occupied Pomerania, the Russians ravaged Prussia, and the French 
also advanced upon it. Frederic seemed to be on the verge of 
ruin ; but he surprised and defeated the French and the imperial 
army of 66,000 men at Rossbach, not far from Merseburg, with 
22,000 Prussians. Only the Swiss mercenaries retreated in good 
order. One month later, he gained, with the same army, the 
greatest of his victories at Lissa, in Silesia, routing 80,000 Austrians, 
so that only 17,000 men reached Bohemia. The Russians and 
Swedes had also to retreat. In the third year of th'e war he 
defeated the Russians at Zorndorf, in Brandenburg (1758 A. D.) 
The two following campaigns were disastrous to him. He was 
completely defeated at Kunnersdorf, in Brandenburg, a Prussian 
army captured, and most of his lands were conquered. It was his 
good fortune, however, that Elizabeth, empress of Russia, died. 
Her successor, Peter II., held him so dear that he gave up to him 
the Russian troops for his support (1762 A. D.) He was soon after 
killed, but Catharine III., who succeeded him, concluded peace 
with Prussia. Frederic expelled the enemies from his lands. The 
English were successfully fighting the French in America, Africa 
and Asia, and thus at last a general peace followed, ending one of the 
bloodiest wars on record. The treaty of peace was concluded in 
the castle of Hubertsburg, near Leipsic (1763 A. D.) Frederic 
retained Silesia, 

He endeavored now to restore prosperity in his lands by distrib- 
uting grain for food and seed, rebuilding the burned villages, found- 
ing colonies, and in special regions remitting all taxes, etc. In 

Who with Frederic II. ? What success had he in the first campaign ? What 
reverses did he have during the second campaign ? What success did he have at 
the end of the campaign ? In what two battles did he defeat the enemies ? What 
enemy did he defeat in the third campaign ? How did he succeed in the two 
following years ? What was then his good fortune ? Who concluded peace with 
him ? Where was general peace concluded ? What country did he hold ? How 
did he endeavor to restore prosperity in his lands ? 



200 

general, he took praiseworthy care of agriculture, arts and manu- 
factures. He amended the laws, aboHshed the torture and other 
cruel punishments of the middle ages, increased the public reve- . 
nues, granted liberty of conscience and of the press, and enjoyed 
the intercourse with scholars. He worked with restless assiduity, 
and raised Prussia to her present eminence. He governed about 
fifty years (i 740-1 786 A. D.) 

^ 87. France. Louis XIV. 's Predominance in Europe. 
His Wars. Spanish War of Succession. Battle 
at Blenheim. Persecution of Prot- 
estants. Louis XV. 

Most of the wars of conquest were waged in this period by 
Louis XIV. — the first (1667-1668 A. D.) against his brother-in- 
law, Charles II., king of Spain, because he claimed some lands as an 
heirloom of his wife, though she had solemnly resigned her heirship 
in a contrtict. He achieved great conquests, but was soon com- 
pelled by the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden, to make 
peace. 

Resentful against Holland, and thinking that country to be the 
prioicipal plotter of the alliance, he sent his great Generals Conde, 
Turenne, Luxemburg and Vauban, with 100,000 men, against the 
republic (1672-1678 A. D.) He was supported besides by Eng- 
land and Sweden. Holland was overrun by her enemies, and the 
capital, Amsterdam, besieged. Then the inhabitants opened their 
dykes, making the sea their ally by letting it in, and their great 
adiniral, Ruyter, defeated the English- French fleet. Presently^ 
Spam, Lorraine, Germany, Austria and Denmark also took arms 
against Louis, and Ruyter vanquished three more times the hostile 
fleets. Meanwhile, Turenne devastated Germany along the Rhine. 
At last Holland disgracefully deserted her allies and made separate 
peace with Louis, at Nymegen (1678 A. D.), by which treaty all 
it had lost was again recovered. The allies of Holland, however, 
had to suffer for it. Spain lost Franche-Comte, the duke of Lor- 
raine his entire domain, and the German empire several cities. 

How was his administration, in general ? How long did he govern Prussia ? 
I 87. Who waged the most wars of conquest ? Against whom did he wage his 
first war ? Why ? Who compelled him to make peace ? Against whom did he 
wage the second war ? How did the Dutch defend themselves ? What great 
generals did he have ? What admiral defeated the English-French fleet ? What 
country made a separate peace with Louis ? Who had to suffer ? 



201 

Moreover, Louis, in the name of the duchess of Orleans, claimed 
a share of the heritage of her brother, the prince-elector of the Pa- 
latinate, though she had expressly resigned her claims ; in addition, 
he wanted to appoint an archbishop in Cologne. As Germany and 
the pope refused the prelate, he snatched PhiHpsburg from the em- 
pire and Avignon from the pope, and thus the German war was 
enkindled (1688-1697 A. D.) Fighting against him were Ger- 
many, Austria, the pope. Savoy, England, Holland and Denmark. 
Louis was left alone (only Switzerland permitted its mercenaries to 
xemain in his service). It would have been an admirable combat, if 
he had waged it for the sacred cause of right. He made great con- 
quests ; nevertheless, he was obliged, by the peace of Ryswick, to 
return almost all of the conquered lands to the enemies (1697 A. D.) 
He fought most tenaciously in the war of the Spanish succession 
(1701-1714 A. D.) Charles II., king of Spain, was childless. The 
large realm was claimed by Bavaria and Savoy, but especially by 
Louis XIV., in the name of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, and by 
Emperor Leopold I. The latter had the next right to the heritage. 
As Louis had married Maria Theresa, daughter of PhiUp of Spain, 
he had renounced all claim to the Spanish crown, either for himself 
or his successors. When England mediated a treaty of partition 
between the parties concerned, Charles II., provoked by these arbi- 
trary proceedmgs, designated the prince of Bavaria as the universal 
heir; but the latter suddenly died. Charles II. then wanted to give 
■ up the whole heritage to prince Charles, Leopold's son, on the con- 
dition, however, that Leopold should send his son with an army to 
Spain ; but the emperor could not be induced to do so. By a new 
treaty of partition, Louis would leave the heritage for the most part 
to the Austrian prince; Leopold also rejected this proposal. 
Meanwhile Charles II. died, and a last will of his appeared, which 
designated Philip of Anjou single heir. This prince immediately 
went to Spain and took possession of the country (1701 A. D.) 
Soon Austria, England, Holland, Prussia, Portugal and Savoy 
declared war against Louis; Bavaria only sided with him. 
Eugen and Marlborough, the great generals of Austria and 
England, defeated the army of the French and Bavarians at 

What of his German war? What enemies fought against him? What was 
the result of this war ? What was the cause of the Spanish war of succession ? 
Who took possession of Spain?. What countries were his enemies ? Who sided 
with him ? Where was he defeated ? How was he disposed to act after his defeat ? 



202 

Blenheim (Hochstedt), in Bavaria, the greatest battle which 
had occurred for 200 years (1704 A. D.) Added to this, were 
a severe winter and a want of bread in France. Louis be- 
came disposed to deliver up the whole heritage; but when Aus- 
tria and England both demanded of him that he expel his grand- 
son from Spain, he firmly refused, and was saved by — a pair of gloves 
belonging to Lady Marlborough, which pleased Queen Anne, and 
were denied her by the lady. She, having already offended the 
queen several times, was together with her husband disgraced, and 
the latter lost his command ; besides. Emperor Joseph I., Leopold's 
first-born son, died; his brother and successor. Emperor Charles VL 
would, by the possession of the Spanish heritage, have become the 
overpowering monarch of Europe. Therefore Anne began negotia- 
tions, and Louis concluded peace with all his enemies (17 13 A. D.) 
The emperor and Germany assented to it at Rastadt and Baden 
(17 14 A. D.) Philip of Anjou remained king of Spain; Austria 
received Naples, Milan, Sardinia and the Spanish Netherlands; 
Gibraltar was ceded to England. Louis still waged some smaller 
wars against Holland. According to the decision of the reunion 
chambers, which he instituted in different towns, in order to have it 
settled what in ancient times belonged to France, he took away part 
of Luxemburg, Brabant and Flanders from Holland, Strasburg from 
Germany, and defended his prey by war. 

He cruelly persecuted the Huguenots in France, being persuaded 
to do so by the Jesuits and Madame de Maintenon, whom he had^ 
elevated by a secret marriage to the rank of his wife. They were 
excluded from all offices, and deprived of their children ; the sick 
who refused to turn Catholics lost their property, and were sent to 
the galleys, if they recovered. Incursions of troops, called dragon- 
ades, enforced these measures. Finally, Louis revoked the edict of 
Nantes (1685 A. D.), ordered all Huguenots to become converts to 
the Catholic religion, forbade the practice of their worship, and ban- 
ished from the kingdom, within fifteen days, all their ministers who 
would not recant. Afterwards he closed the ports against the fugi- 
tives, sent those who attempted to escape to the galleys, and con- 

What did Austria and England demand of him ? Did he obey them ? By 
what trifle was he saved ? Who was disgraced by Queen Anne ? Who remained 
king of Spain? What did Austria and England receive? What Christian sect 
did Louis persecute ? By whom was he instigated to do so ? In what manner 
was it persecuted ? What of the dragonades ? What edict did he revoke ? What 
result did his persecution cause ? 



203 

fiscated their property. However, in spite of all prohibition and 
punishment, 500,000 Huguenots emigrated, taking with them, to the 
great damage of the State, their treasures, arts and industries to 
England, Holland and Germany. New violence directed against the 
Huguenots in the province of Languedoc, and financial oppression 
of its inhabitants, caused an insurrection which three marshals could 
scarcely suppress (i 703-1 704 A. D.) 100,000 men lost their lives on 
the battle-field, and 10,000 Huguenots died on the scaffold. 

Under the reign of Louis the pubUc offices were venal ; 45»°°o 
were really sold, and, for want of money, 40,000 more established 
and offered for sale. In conclusion, it cannot be gainsaid that he 
greariy encouraged the arts and sciences, commerce and industry. 
A great share of his merits, however, was due to his excellent 
minister, Colbert. He reigned 72 years (1643-1715 A. D.) When 
he at last died, France was exultant. 

During the government of Louis XV., John Law, in order to 
reimburse the immense debt of the State, established a public bank, 
which at first afforded great profit to a few stockholders ; but as 
the bank became unable to pay more, the value of the stocks was 
lessened to one-half, and many thousand families were thus reduced 
to poverty. — Louis XV. was engaged in the war of the Austrian 
succession, and the Seven Years' War (see §§ 85, 86.) 

§ 88. England. Crom^A^ell. War Against Holland. Ad- 
mirals Blake, Van Tromp, and de Ruyter. Charles II. 
Whigs and Tories. Dethronement of James II. 
William III. Accession of the House of 
Hanover. The Preienders. 

Cromwell had formed the project of a coaUtion with Holland, 
which was to make the two republics one and indivisible; but 
national antipathies could not be overcome, and instead of the pro- 
posed coahtion, there ensued a fierce war (1652 A. D.) The repub- 
lican parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, by prohibiting 
the importation of all foreign merchandise, except in English bot- 
toms, or in those of the country producing the commodities. The 
act tended greatly to promote the naval superiority of Great Brit- 
ain, its object being to wrest the carrying trade of Europe from the 

What of the public offices ? To whom was due a great share of his merits 
for promoting the arts and sciences ? For what purpose was the bank of John Law 
established? What was its result ? ^ 88. What was the tendency of the Navi- 
gation Act ? What war did it cause ? In whose favor did the war end ? 



204 

Dutch. The war terminated in favor of England. The celebrated 
Admiral Blake distinguished himself in it; he had for his antago- 
nists the great Dutch maritime chiefs, Van Tromp and de Ruyter. 
Peace was concluded on terms advantageous to England, and 
Cromwell, as protector, signed the treaty of pacification (1654 
A. D.) 

He governed England with unrivaled energy and abiHty, and 
was the most powerful potentate of his time in Europe. He pro- 
moted commerce, created a strong navy, and made wise laws. In 
private life, in the several relations of a husband, a father, a neigh- 
bor and a friend, he was exemplary. His household was like that 
of a simple citizen. But he had many adversaries and enviers. 
Several conspiracies and attempts to murder him deprived him of 
peace of mind. After his death (1658 A. D.), contending factions 
in the army as well as in parliament, for a time filled the country 
with bloody dissension, when General Monk, at the head of an 
army, declared in favor of the restoration of royalty ; consequently, 
Charles II., son of the late king, was proclaimed sovereign of Eng- 
land by the united acclamations of the army, the people, and the two 
houses of parliament. He had not become wiser by the misfortune 
of his father. He caused the documents of the republic to be 
burned by the hangman, and the Scots to be cruelly persecuted by 
his Catholic brother, James ; he limited the right of petition, and 
deprived the cities of their liberties. A conspiracy was planned 
against him, in which the most excellent men participated. But it 
was detected, and the conspirators atoned for their crime by their 
blood (1683 A. D.) 

During his administration the Whig and Tory parties were 
organized. The former gave the nation the right to oppose energetic 
resistance to the king who would injure the constitution, but the 
latter required passive obedience by the people. Parliament also 
decreed the celebrated habeas-corpus act, that sacred law of personal 
liberty. By the provisions of this act, no magistrate is authorized to 
take a prisoner without showing reason for the arrest in writing, and 
the prisoner shall be brought within three days before the judge. 
Though Charles professed adherence to the principles of the Reforma- 

What admirals distinguished themselves in the war ? How was Cromwell's 
public administration and private life ? What general declared in favor of the 
restoration of royalty ? Mention some ordinances of Charles II. Explain the 
terms "Whigs " and "Tories;" the kaleas-corpus act. 



205 

tion, yet his great and secret designs were the establishment of 
papacy. 

His brother, James II., forced the Scots to forsake their creed,, 
and appointed bishops, suspended 350 Presbyterian ministers and 
expelled them, together with their families. In England, also, 
he assailed the national church. Guided by the Jesuits, he abol- 
ished religious freedom, appointed Catholic teachers in the col- 
leges, turned out Protestant ministers, and gave the public offices to 
Catholics, in opposition to the laws of the country. In Ireland 
also he gave orders to persecute and exterminate the Protestants. 
Many of the nobility and great men of the kingdom, foreseeing no 
redress for their grievances, finally sent an invitation to Williamy 
prince of Orange, the stadt-holder of the United Dutch Provinces,, 
who had married the" king's eldest daughter, and requested him to 
come over and aid them, by his arms, in the recovery of their laws 
and liberties. William landed at the head of an army, declaring 
that he had come to restore liberty (1688 A. D.) He was every- 
where received with the highest favor. The frightened tyrant fled 
secretly to France. The national convention, called by William,, 
declared that the king's withdrawal was an abdication of the gov- 
ernment, and that the throne was thereby made vacant, and a bill 
was passed settling the crown on William and his wife Mary, and 
the succession on princess Anne, the next eldest daughter of the 
late king. At the same time the convention made a declaration of 
the most precious natural and constitutional rights of the English 
people; thereby the English constitution was completed. The 
Catholic religion was forever excluded from the throne. James, 
furnished with a fleet by Louis XIV., returned and landed in 
Ireland, where the Catholics took up arms for him, but lost the decis- 
ive battle, and fled again to France, where Louis granted him a 
beggar's livelihood. The course taken by this monarch led to a 
declaration of war against France (1689 A. D.) which, in its prog- 
ress, involved most of the continental powers, who united with 
William for the purpose of putting a stop to the encroachments of 
Louis (see § 87). 

What misdeeds did James II. commit .'' How did he deal with the Protestant 
Scots? How with the national Church of England? How with the Protestants 
of Ireland ? To whom did he give the public offices ? Who was invited to assist 
England ? How did William proceed ? How .was he received ? What did the 
national convention declare ? What religion was excluded from the throne ? Who- 
took up arms for James II. ? What was his end ? 



206 

After William, Anne succeeded to the throne, and after her 
George I., prince elector of Hanover, and great grandson of James 
I. (1714A. D.) A most prominent person in the administration 
during a portion of his reign and during the first part of that of 
George II., was the talented minister, Robert Walpole. The son of 
James II. pretended to the succession; Louis XIV. favored his 
cause, and many Scotch nobles took up arms in defense of it. The 
Pretender arrived in Scotland and was proclaimed king by his follow- 
ers, but finding his struggle desperate, he returned to France. The 
rebellion was suppressed, and the leaders executed. His son, 
Charles Edward, called the young Pretender, repeated the attempt 
of his father. Assisted by Louis XV., he landed at the head of a 
small force in Scotland, and caused his father to be proclaimed king 
of Great Britain. But the royal troops gained a bloody victory over 
him at Culloden (1746 A. D.) which forever crushed the hope of the 
Stuart family. Numbers of his adherents perished on the scaffold 
or by military execution. Under George III. the United States of 
North America became independent (see § 92, etc.) His great 
minister was WiUiam Pitt (Lord Chatham). 

§ 89. Northern States. Peter the Great. Charles XII. 
Battles at Narva and Pultowa. First Parti- 
tion of Poland. 

Alexei, Czar of Russia, left several children. When his eldest 
son had died (1682 A. D.) the youngest, Peter, ought to have suc- 
ceeded to the government ; but his sister, Sophia, sought to supplant 
him, and, supported by the body-guards, even to deprive him of 
life ; but he frustrated her scheme, and relegated her to a convent. 
Having learned from his tutor, Le Fort, of Geneva, to appreciate 
civilization, Peter resolved to enlighten the people of his country, and 
thus raise them from their state of barbarism. To this end he or- 
ganized an army, taking Europe for his model, and built a fleet. 
For the sake of commerce he seized the town of Azof from the Turks 
(1696 A. D.) At this time he also suppressed a conspiracy of the 
life-guards. He went to Germany, Holland and England (1697 A. 

Who succeeded William and Anne? Who was a prominent minister of 
George I. and II. ? Give a narrative of the attempt of the two Pretenders. § 89. 
Who was the celebrated son of Czar Alexei ? Who tried to supplant Peter ? 
"With the help of whom ? How did Peter punish his sister? What did he resolve 
upon concerning his country ? What did he organize ? W^hat build ? What 
town seize from the Turks ? Give an account of his travels. 



207 

D.), in order to acquire more learning. In Holland he learned 
ship-building, and was not ashamed to wield the ax like a common 
ship-wright. In Saardam the house where he then lived as a journey- 
man is still shown. He also took instruction in surgery, chemistry 
and physics. On his return he was accompanied by numerous arti- 
sans whom he had engaged to aid him in the great design of civiliz- 
ing his subjects. Recalled from a second journey by a new riot of 
the life-guards, he punished the guilty in a terrible manner (1698 A. 
D.) He suspected Sophia to have again instigated the revolt. He 
caused many of the guilty to be put to the rack in order to compel 
them to confess their crime, and many were hung below the win- 
dows of his sister. He himself assisted in this bloody work. After 
a third sedition he abolished the corps (1705 A. D.) 

In order to promote commerce on the Baltic Sea, he resolved to 
dispossess the S^vedes of the lands they had there. Poland and 
Denmark were his allies. But Charles XII., the young king of Swe- 
den, subdued the Danes, and with a small army defeated 80,000 
Russians at Narva, one-fourth of whom he killed in battle (1700 A. 
D. He then expelled Augustus, king of Poland and Saxony, from 
Poland (1702-1706 A. D.), and put Saxony under contribution. 
Meanwhile Peter conquered the Swedish province Ingermanland, on 
the Baltic Sea, and with a great loss of human life founded the city of 
Petersburg (1703 A. D.) Charles invaded Russia, and first ad- 
vanced to Moscow ; then he turned to the Ukraine, where he expected 
to have the assistance of the Cossacks; but his hope was frustrated, 
and he as well as his troops suffered bitterly from want of provisions. 
Peter made an offer of reconciliation, but Charles would not resolve 
on peace except in Moscow. He was totally beaten at Pultowa, 
and himself wounded (i 709 A. D.); he then fled to the Turks. After 
two years he succeeded in inciting them to make war against Peter ; 
200,000 Turks surrounded the Russians on the banks of the Pruth; 
Peter seemed to be lost ; but the sagacity of his wife Catharine, who 
accompanied him during the campaign, saved him and the army. 
She advised him to bribe the Turkish General with her own jewels, 
which she freely offered ; the attempt succeeded, and Peter obtained, 

How did he punish his life-guards after a new riot ? In what way would he 
promote commerce on the Baltic Sea ? Who opposed him ? In what battle was 
he defeated by Charles XII. ? How did the latter deal with the king of Poland ? 
"What large city did Peter found ? How did Charles succeed in the war against 
him ? Where was he defeated ? Where did he take refuge ? Where did the 
Turks surround the Russians ? Who saved Peter ? By what means ? 



208 

on fair conditions, free retreat and peace. Charles remained three 
years more in Turkey, in order to rouse it once more against Russia. 
In the meantime Peter made great conquests in Sweden. When finally 
the sultan himself ordered Charles to depart, he defied him also, and 
m his foolhardiness withstood a siege of his house one day against a 
whole Turkish army. Without an army, and with a single com- 
panion, he returned to his kingdom, which was in the greatest con- 
fusion. In a second war against Denmark he was killed by a ball 
(1718 A. D.) 

Meanwhile Peter continued to take care of the welfare of his 
country. He called into it many foreign manufacturers, mechanics^ 
artists and scholars, established schools, built high-roads and canals,, 
improved agriculture, limited the power of the clergy, and reformed 
the convents. His care extended from one end of his vast realm to 
the other. He respected merit in every position, and placed little 
value upon rank and race. He made Menshikof, a confectioner, liis 
friend and minister, and took Catharine, daughter of a Swedish peas- 
ant, for his second wife. He had repudiated his first wife because she 
disliked his reforms. His son Alexei also detested them, being misled 
by discontented noblemen and monks, and caused public commo- 
tions (17 16 A. D.), while Peter was again traveling abroad. Then 
the father caused him to be put to death (it is said, at the instigation 
of Catharine). — Chief among Peter's faults were drunkenness and 
ill-temper, during which he often rudely treated friends most en- 
deared to him, sometimes even with the knout. He died suddenly 
(1725 A. D.), and not having designated a successor, Catharine was 
proclaimed heiress' of the throne. She reigned two years. 

Under Peter II. Menshikof atoned for his insolence against the 
grandees with banishment. Elizabeth I., a daughter of Peter I., put 
the youth Ivan into prison, exiled the imperial ministers, Miinnich 
and Osterman, to Siberia, and ascended the throne herself. 

Catharine II. caused her husband, Peter III., to be murdered, 
waged war against the Turks, and seized a large part of Poland. 
She ordered troops to march into this land under the pretense of 
restoring tranquillity between its contesting parties. When they 

How long did Charles remain in Turkey? Give a specimen of his fool- 
hardiness. What was his end? How did Peter care for his country? Did he 
place much value upon rank and race ? Illustrate by examples. How did he 
deal with his first wife and his son Alexei ? What were his chief faults ? Who 
was proclaimed empress after his death? What of Elizabeth I. and Catharine 
II. ? Under what pretense did the latter march troops into Poland ? 



209 

then engaged in civil war, she, Frederic II. and Joseph II. deman- 
ded the cession of different provinces. In vain the people com- 
plained ; in vain King Stanislaus Augustus and the States-General 
protested against the impudent demand ; in vain some deputies re- 
fused to do homage, and others gave themselves up in despair to^ 
death. The three sovereigns threatened to divide the whole country 
among themselves, and, therefore, the king and the States- General fin- 
ally agreed to their exaction (1772 A. D.) In this way one-third was 
torn from Poland with five miUions of inhabitants ; Frederic seized 
West Prussia ; Maria Theresa, Galicia, and Catharine some eastern 
provinces ; the three sovereigns, besides, warranted to themselves the 
undisturbed possession of their prey. Europe looked upon their pro- 
ceedings with silence. Frederic treated his new subjects cruelly. 
They were, like cattle, violently dragged to Prussia, their estates pil- 
laged, the young men impressed, the daughters arbitrarily married, 
and their dowries extorted from their parents. 

§ 90. East Indies. Aureng Zeb. East Indian Company. 

In the East Indies Aureng Zeb (1659-1707 A. D.) elevated the 
empire of the Great Mogul to the summit of its power, but after 
his death it rapidly sank again. Domestic and foreign enemies as- 
sailed it. Among the latter the most fortunate was Nadir, who, 
from a camel-driver, had risen to the dignity of a Shah of Persia ; 
the Great Mogul was obfiged to cede many possessions to him. 

When Philip II., who had united Portugal with Spain, was en- 
gaged in war with the Dutch, they took from the Portuguese most of 
their possessions in the East Indies, but in the eighteenth century 
they lost most of them again through the English. 

Queen Elizabeth had already conceded to the East Indian Com- 
pany, a society of English merchants, the privilege of carrying on 
commerce with the East Indies. The Company took advantage of 
the decay of the Mongolian empire, and of the quarrels of the native 
sovereigns, in order to make conquests. When the governor of Ben- 
gal took Calcutta, the principal settlement of the Company, and 

What did she, together with Frederic II. and Joseph II., demand of it ? 
What threats did they make ? What provinces did they tear from Poland ? How 
did Frederic II. deal with the Polanders ? | 90. What of Aureng Zeb and 
Nadir in the East Indies ? Who seized the possessions of the Europeans in the 
East Indies from the Portuguese ? Who from the Dutch ? Give an account 
of the origin and aggrandizement of the East Indian Company. From whom did 
it obtain the sovereignt^y of Bengal ? 

(14) 



210 

dealt cruelly with the prisoners (1756 A. D.) it took vengeance by 
war, and obtained from the Great Mogul the sovereignty of Bengal 
for an annuity (1765 A. D.) The cruelty of the English finally ex- 
cited general exasperation; Hyder Ali, the prudent and powerful 
sovereign of Mysore, began war against them, and continued it for 
many years ; aided by a body of French troops, he at the head of 
an army of 100, coo natives attacked the English forces, and killed 
or captured the whole of them (1780 A. D.) He made great con- 
quests (i 779-1 783 A. D.); but his son, Tippo Saheb, lost them 
again, and the dominion of his own lands besides. The Company 
also waged war against the Mahrattas several times (after 1774 A. D.) 
and conquered a great part of their territory. Thus it acquired, in 
the East Indies, the possession of a far-reaching dominion. It estab- 
lished its own government, appointed governors and maintained 
great armies. But later it had to give up the right of government 
in the conquered countries to the English crown (1784 A. D.) Its 
monopoly of trade was also by degrees limited, and finally was 
reduced to the single article of tea. 

I 91. United. States of North America. Their Colonies. 
The French Wars. 

The first settlements in the United States of America were men- 
tioned in the preceding period (see § 71). More colonies were 
founded in this period. Connecticut and New Hampshire were 
settled by colonists from England : the latter was sometimes united 
to Massachusetts, and at other times separated from it ; finally it 
was separated, remaining a distinct colony (1741 A. D.) The 
different colonies of the former were also united into one by Charles 
II. (1665 A. D.) — New Jersey and Delaware were settled much like 
New York, and fell under English rule at the same time as New 
York. New Jersey later became a separate province (1738 A. D.) — 
North Carolina was settled by emigrants from Virginia and Europe ; 
South Carolina, by English and Huguenots. Both at first formed 
one colony, called Carolina; later (1729 A. D.) North Carolina was 
made a separate one. — Georgia was founded by Enghsh emigrants 

Who was its most formidable enemy ? What did it establish ? To whom did 
it then give up its right of government ? To what article was its monopoly of 
trade at last limited? § 91. What of the settlements in Connecticut and New 
Hampshire ? In New Jersey and Delaware ? In North and South Carolina ? 
In Georgia ? What of Maine ? 



211 

under Oglethorpe (1733 ^- ^0 — Maine was a part of Massachusetts 
till 1 8 20, when it came into the Union as an independent State. 

The most remarkable colony is that of the noble-minded Quaker, 
William Penn, in the State of Pennsylvania, so-called from his name. 
The English government had owed Penn's father, who was an ad- 
miral in the British navy, a large sum of money. Penn, in payment, 
took a grant for a large territory in that State and bought other 
lands from the Indians, with whom he made a famous treaty. A 
large company of emigrants, mostly Quakers, left England and 
came to the new settlement (168 1 A. D.) He laid the foundation 
of Philadelphia (brotherly love), and gave to his colony an excel- 
lent constitution (see § 94). It grew rapidly and prospered. The 
colonists lived in unbroken harmony with the Indians, who called 
Penn " Onas," and the highest praise they could give a white man 
was to say he was like " Onas." After Penn's death (17 18 A. D.) 
his sons were the proprietors of the colony. — The Spaniards foun- 
ded St. Augustine in Florida (1565 A. D.), the oldest city in the 
United States, and Santa Fe in New Mexico (1582 A. D.) 

Almost all the colonies were more or less troubled with Indian 
wars; Virginia suffered two massacres, in which several hundred 
whites were slaughtered. The colonists invariably got the better in 
the end, and gradually the Indians receded farther and farther from 
the neighborhood of the whites. 

In the last period (after 1600 A. D.) the French commenced to 
colonize Acadia (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, etc.), and Canada, 
calling these countries New France. Port Royal (Annapolis) was 
their first permanent colony. In 17 18 the city of New Orleans 
was founded by them. They gradually established missions, trad- 
ing-posts and forts along the chain of the Great Lakes, e. g., Fort 
Niagara, penetrated the Mississippi Valley, and finally claimed that 
valley from the source of this river to its mouth, saying it was a 
part of New France. The presence of two rival nations on the 
same soil made it certain that some time the two would come into 
conflict. The conflict came, and was fought through four wars. 

During King William's war, which was waged in Europe be- 
tween England and France (1688-1697 A. D.), the eastern Indians, 

Which is the most remarkable colony ? Give an account of William Penn. 
What grant did he take from England ? What city did he found ? What did the 
Indians call him ? By what tribes were the colonies troubled ? What did the 
French call New France? What did they establish along the chain of the Great 
Lakes ? What valley did they claim as part of New France ? 



212 

who were allies of the French, destroyed several settlements in 
Maine, New Hampshire and New York State. The colonists re- 
solved to send a fleet and an army to attack Quebec and Montreal, 
But the expedition was a failure ; only Port Royal was taken. By 
the treaty of Ryswick it was agreed that each side was to have the 
same territory as before the war. 

In Queen Anne's war (1702-1713 A. D.) the contest took the same 
form as the previous one. The French and their Indian allies laid 
waste the frontier settlements of New England. The colonists de- 
termined again to invade Acadia and Canada ; but the plan was 
once more a failure. The only gain to England was the winning of 
Acadia. After the war, the French continued to increase their 
power in the Northwest. They built Fort Niagara and Crown. 
Point, and had more than sixty military stations, extending from; 
Lake Ontario down the Mississippi to New Orleans. 

Their progress was interrupted by King George's war (1744 A. 
D.) There was only one important event in this war, the capture 
of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, and even this place was by the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle given up to the French (1748 A. D.) 

Thus far the English had attempted no settlements west of the 
Alleghanies. Now a company of English merchants obtained from 
the king of England a grant of a large tract of land on the east 
bank of the Ohio river, and established a trading-post on the 
Monongahela. The French immediately sent troops to build forts 
in the disputed territory. Major George Washington, a young Vir- 
ginian, only twenty-one years old, was then, in the name of the 
Enghsh government, sent as embassador to demand an explanation 
of this outrage on the part of the French. The French command- 
ant sent back a letter by Washington to the governor of Virginia, 
refusing to withdraw the French troops from the disputed territory. 
The governor sent a party of workmen to construct a fort at the 
junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, and a regiment 
of soldiers, in which Washington was second in command. Mean- 

What was the success of the expeditions to Quebec and Montreal in King 
William's war ? What country did the English gain in Queen Anne's war ? 
How many military stations did the French have after this war, between Lake 
Ontario and New Orleans ? On what tributary of the Ohio river did a company 
of English merchants establish a trading-post ? What did the French then do in 
the disputed territory ? Who was sent as an embassador to them ? What was 
the reply of the French commander ? What did the governor of Virginia cause 
to be constructed there ? Who was second in command? 



213 

while the French had driven ofif the fort-builders, and themselves 
completed the work (1754 A. D.) They called it Fort du Quesne 
(now Pittsburg). Washington hastened forward with an advanced 
party, and beat a body of the French at a place called Great Mead- 
ows. There he built Fort Necessity, which was about fifty miles 
distant from Fort du Quesne. While waiting here the commanded 
died, and Washington became chief commander. He was attacked 
by the French and had to surrender, after having held out all day. 
He and his troops were permitted to return to Virginia. Next 
spring General Braddock marched at the head of two regiments of 
regulars against Fort du Quesne. Washington accompanied him 
as an aide-de-camp (1755 ^- ^0 Nearly all the colonies had 
raised militia, and voted money and supplies to carry on this cam- 
paign. When near the fort, Braddock, leading an advanced body 
of about 1,200 men, was attacked by the French and Indians, who 
were concealed in the woods. The whole column was thrown into 
confusion and fled in a panic. The commander was killed. Wash- 
ington, with a little band of Virginians, covered the retreat. The 
expedition was now given up. 

Another column, designed to march against Fort Niagara, 
reached Oswego, but storms, sickness and desertion of the Indians 
induced the commander to abandon the enterprise. 

A third column of 6,000 men, led by General Johnson, and 
sent to attack Fort Crown Point, built Fort Edward on the Hudson, 
and moved to the southern end of Lake George. As the French 
moved forward to attack the fort, Johnson sent Colonel Williams 
with a thousand men to watch the French. A fight followed, in 
which WiUiams was defeated and killed. The French followed the 
fugitives to Johnson's main body, which was encamped at Lake 
George, where they were defeated, and their general, Dieskau, taken 
prisoner. Johnson, not feeling able to attack Crown Point, dis- 
banded his army. 

While preparations for this campaign were going on, an expedi- 
tion sailed to the head of the Bay of Fundy, kidnapped the French 
settlers of Nova Scotia to the nvimber of 7,000, put them on board 

Give an account of Washington's conflict with the French. Who was the 
commander of the English regulars against Fort du Quesne the next spring ? 
Who accompanied him ? By whom was Braddock attacked ? With what effect ? 
Who covered the retreat ? With what success did another, and a third column 
carry on the war? What of the kidnapping of the French settlers of Nova 
Scotia ? 



214 

the ships, and exiled them to various colonies. It was a terrible 
deed, but it was thought necessary. 

In the two following campaigns Montcalm, the French general, 
captured the fort at Oswego (1756 A. D.) and Fort William Henry 
(1757 A. D.) In the former he took 1,400 prisoners and a large 
quantity of stores; in the latter, 2,000 troops. His Indian allies 
killed a number of prisoners in cold blood here. The great William 
Pitt was now made a member of the British cabinet, and placed at 
the head of colonial affairs. He prepared to carry on the war with 
great vigor. 

In the fourth campaign (1758 A. D.) 50,000 men — 22,000 Brit- 
ish regulars and 28,000 colonists — were engaged. Three expedi- 
tions were planned. The first took Cape Breton Island, with 6,000 
prisoners and a large amount of munitions of war. It was a very 
severe bloAv to the French. The only success of the second expe- 
dition was the capture of Fort Frontenac (now Kingston). The 
operations of the third campaign were directed against Fort du 
Quesne. The French force there, being now much reduced, aban- 
doned the fort. Its name was changed to Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). 

In the last campaign (1759 A. D.) the principal object was to 
capture Quebec. With a fleet carrying 8,000 troops, General Wolfe 
sailed up the St. Lawrence to Orleans Island, a few miles below 
Quebec. Here he landed and prepared for the attack. For this 
reason Montcalm weakened the garrisons at Ticonderoga, Crown 
Point, Fort Niagara, etc. The result was their capture. The pre- 
liminary operations of General Wolfe were unsuccessful. After- 
wards the bold design of scaling the Heights of Abraham was car- 
ried out. Here was fought a battle that decided the war (the 13th 
of September). Wolfe was twice wounded, but continued to lead 
the charge at the head of his grenadiers till he received a third and 
mortal wound. Montcalm also was mortally wounded. After 
hours of stubborn fighting, the left wing and center of the French 
gave way, and the English were victorious. Five days after, Quebec 

What forts did Montcalm capture in the two following campaigns ? Who was 
then placed at the head of colonial affairs in the British cabinet ? How many- 
British regulars and colonists were engaged in the fourth campaign ? How 
many expeditions were planned ? What island did the first expedition take ? What 
fort did the second expedition capture ? Against what fort was the third 
directed ? What was the principal object of the last campaign ? Who was the 
English general? Describe his campaign. Where did General Wolfe land? 
What Heights did he scale? Give an account of the battle. 



215 

surrendered. Soon after Montreal and other military stations in 
Canada were also given up to the EngHsh. The contest for the 
possession of America ended triumphantly for them (1760 A. D.) 
Three years after peace was concluded. During this time the 
Indians were very hostile, capturing most of the English posts in 
the Northwest, and killing hundreds of persons. At length the colon- 
ists subdued them. By the treaty of Paris France gave up to 
England all her American possessions east of the Mississippi, except 
New Orleans (1763 A. D.) By the same treaty Spain ceded 
Florida to England in exchange for Havana. 

I 92. Continued. War* of the Colonies for Independence. 
The Stamp Act. Battle at Bunker Hill. Declara- 
tion of Independence. George Washington. 
Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Paine. 

When England learned to appreciate the importance of her 
colonies, she attempted to limit their liberty, and to gain their com- 
mercial advantages for herself. She prohibited them from establish- 
ing manufactories, and levied high duties on merchandise, the im- 
portation of which had formerly been free. The French wars had 
added largely to the already heavy debt of England, and the British 
government determined that the colonies should bear a part of this 
burden. These denied that parliament had a right to impose taxes 
upon them, their own losses and expenses in the wars having 
already been as heavy as they could bear. Nevertheless, the 
parliament passed the "Stamp Act" (1765 A. D.), an act 
ordering that all legal writings, together with pamphlets, news- 
papers, etc., etc., in the colonies, should be executed on stamped 
paper, for which a duty should be paid to the crown. The colon- 
ists became highly indignant ; everywhere was heard the cry : 
" Liberty, property^ and no stamps ! " The stamp act was not 
complied with, and it was resolved to import no more English 
goods till it was repealed. In order to dispense more easily with 
them, coarse materials were fabricated ; families denied themselves 
the use of all foreign luxuries, and the ; ladies put foreign finery 

What generals lost their lives ? Who obtained the victory ? What stations 
in Canada vi^ere given up to the English ? What was the result of the peace ? 
I 92. What did England attempt after the French wars ? What did it deter- 
mine ? Why did the colonies deny England the right to impose taxes ? What 
act did parliament pass ? What effect did the Stamp Act produce in the colonies ? 
In what manner did they dispense with English goods ? 



216 

aside. By such measures many workmen in England were de- 
prived of their living, and some of the most successful manufac- 
tories had to stop. Benjamin Franklin made his appearance (1766 
A. D.) in parliament, in order to defend the rights of the colonies. 
This most celebrated man, a native of Boston, had been a printer 
while young, and had acquired great scholarship by private studies. 
He then composed ingenious, useful, popular writings, founded a 
public library in Philadelphia, a fire-company, an academy, a hos- 
pital, and invented the lightning-rod (1752 A. D.) His country 
had already intrusted him with the most important offices ; he was 
now postmaster-general of the colonies. He spoke in parliament 
without fear, plainly, with energy and presence of mind. William 
Pitt and Edmund Burke, then both members of parliament, also 
advocated the repeal of the Stamp Act. It was repealed, but at 
the same time it was declared that parliament had the right to tax 
the colonies. They contested this right, asserting that they had, 
originally, the same rights as the mother country, therefore the right 
to tax themselves, through their provincial assemblies, of their own 
accord; the more so, because they were denied representation in 
the English parliament. They declared that taxation without rep- 
resentation was tyranny. The first colonial congress, meeting in 
New York (1765 A. D.), made a similar declaration, and a petition 
to the king and parhament was also sent to England. This coun- 
try, however, soon again imposed duties on different articles, and 
sent revenue commissioners and two regiments to the colonies. 
Bloodshed soon followed. In New York the soldiers killed one 
man ; in Boston, several. The attempt to raise a revenue by taxa- 
tion turned out a total failure. England repealed the duties, except 
on tea. But the colonies also rejected this measure, and when 
the tea arrived it was, in different places, sent back. In Boston, 
several men, disguised as Indians, broke open a number of tea- 
chests and emptied them into the sea (1773 A. D.) 

What bad results were thereby caused to English workmen and manufacturers ? 
Who defended the rights of the colonies in parliament ? Give some particulars 
of Franklin's life. What ofhce did he then hold in the colonies ? What mem- 
bers of parliament did also advocate the repeal of the Stamp Act ? Was it re- 
pealed ? What right did parliament assert it possessed ? Did the colonies acknowl- 
edge this right? Why not? What congress in the colonies made a similar 
declaration ? What did parliament again impose ? What further did it do against 
the colonies ? Where was the first blood shed? What article was not exempted 
from taxation? How were the tea chests handled in Boston ? 



217 

These events incited parliament to pass the most severe resolu- 
tions. The port of Boston was closed (i774 A. D.); the partakers 
in the rebellion, for punishment, were to be carried to England ; 
Franklin lost his office of postmaster-general. The colonists began 
to think of armed resistance. They called the first continental con- 
gress at Philadelphia, in which they agreed upon a declaration of 
rights, recommended the suspension of all commercial intercourse 
with England, and sent another petition to the king. The Massa- 
chusetts assembly organized a corps of militia called " minute-men," 
and formed a "committee of safety," with John Hancock for 
chairman. Washington organized the mihtia of Virginia, and Pat- 
rick Henry exclaimed : " I repeat it, sir, we must fight ! Give me 
liberty or give me death ! " General Gage, commander-in-chief of 
the British, learning that there were some mihtary suppUes at Con- 
cord, sent a body of men to destroy them. When they reached 
Lexington they found a small body of minute-men there. An 
English officer rode up to them, saying : " Disperse, you rebels ! " 
As the Americans did not obey, he ordered the soldiers to fire. 
Eight Americans were killed and several wounded; the rest dis- 
persed. The British then marched on to Concord, where they 
destroyed the stores. On their retreat to Charlestown they lost about 
280 men; the Americans about 90. The colonies immediately 
called their men to arms, and Gage was soon beleaguered in Boston 
by 20,000 Americans. 

A month after (in May, 1775), large reinforcements of British 
troops reached Boston from England. Gage therefore resolved to 
commence operations. The Americans suspected this, and sent a 
force of 800 men to pre-occupy Bunker Hill. One of the officers, 
however, led the troops to Breed's Hill, directly opposite Boston, 
where they, during the night-time, erected an earthwork. Three 
thousand regulars, under General Howe, crossed in boats to storm 
it, behind which about 1,500 Americans, under Prescott, lay. The 
British made two assaults, but were severely repulsed by the Amer- 
icans. These, however, having completely used up their ammuni- 
tion, the British, in a third assault, carried the defenses (June 17th). 
But the victory was dearly won, for they had lost 1,000 men; the 

What resolutions did parliament then adopt ? What precautions did the col- 
onists take now ? Especially Massachusetts ? Washington ? Relate how Gen- 
eral Gage destroyed the military supplies at Concord. How many men did he 
lose ? Give an account of the action at Breed's Hill. What was the number of 
men lost on both sides ? 



218 

Americans only 450. Meanwhile a second continental congress 
was held in Philadelphia, in which the confederation of the thirteen 
colonies was declared, they receiving the name of the " United Col- 
onies" (May, 1775). It voted to raise an army of 20,000 men, 
chose George Washington as commander-in-chief, and sent Frank- 
lin off to France in order to gain the support of that country. 
Soon after the action at Lexington, Ethan Allen, with a small band 
of volunteers, took Fort Ticonderoga by stratagem, the fortress 
being guarded by over 100 pieces of artillery; Fort Crown Point 
surrendered with equal, ease. The invasion of Canada with two- 
columns was also planned — the first under Schuyler and Montgom- 
ery, the other under Benedict Arnold ; but it was a failure. 

It was known that a large British army would arrive in the 
spring (1776 A. D.); accordingly, Washington was ordered to take 
Boston. He erected batteries on the Heights of Dorchester (now 
South Boston). This was done suddenly and secretly, and placed 
the city at the mercy of his cannon. General Howe surrendered,, 
on condition that he should be allowed to withdraw with his troops.. 
Washington occupied Boston. 

The first offensive movements of the British in the south were 
directed against Charleston, South Carohna (1776 A. D.) The 
entrance to the harbor was defended by a fort (afterwards named 
Fort Moultrie), made of sand and palmetto-logs, and garrisoned by 
400 men, under Colonel Moultrie. A land and naval attack made 
on this work was a complete failure. In a few days the expedition 
sailed for New York, South Carolina received the thanks of con- 
gress and the country for the gallant defense of Charleston. 

The British parliament proclaimed the Americans rebels, and raised 
a large army to crush them (1776 A. D.) Consequently, the Ameri- 
cans could see that nothing short of independence would now do. 
Thomas Paine, the secretary of the congress, in his " Common Sense,"^ 
first proclaimed the grand words : . " The free and independent States 
of America." The effect of this pamphlet was electric ; it inflamed 
the minds of the Americans to declare themselves independent.* 

What was resolved upon in the second continental congress ? Who took 
Fort Ticonderoga ? What of the invasion of Canada ? What orders were given 
to Washington ? How did he succeed ? What of Charleston ? Who defended 
the fort ? Who succeeded ? What did congress do ? Who first proclaimed the 
word, " Independence ? " What of the pamphlet, "Common Sense ? " 

* " I published the pamphlet 'Common Sense.' The success it met with was beyond anything 
since the invention of printing. The demand ran to not less than 100,000 copies." — Th. Paine, 
Pol. Works. By the sale of this pamphlet Paine had an opportunity to enrich himself, but he came 
out poor, for he presented the copyright to each of the colonies. 



219 

On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Lee, of Virginia, offered 
a resolution that the " United Colonies are, and ought to be, free 
and independent States." This was earnestly debated and adopted 
July 2d. A committee of congress had been appointed to prepare a. 
Declaration of Independefice . It was written by Thomas Jefferson, of 
Virginia. On the 4th of July, 1776, it was adopted by congress. 
The thirteen colonies then became the United States of America,, 
the royal emblems were destroyed, and balls were made out of the 
wrecks of the statue of George III. 

§93. Concluded. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. La- 
fayette. Surrender of Burgoyne. French Alliance. 
Surrender of Corn^A^allis. Treaty of Paris. 
Washington the First President. 

The war went on. England was fighting with German mer- 
cenaries who had been sold to this end by the sovereigns of Hesse, 
Brunswick and Hanover. Washington, the commander-in-chief, was 
the son of a rich planter in Virginia. He had made of himself a 
good surveyor at sixteen. At nineteen he was made adjutant of one 
of the Virginia militia districts, with the rank of major. Even then 
he was looked upon as a young man of uncommon promise. Now, 
as he was placed at the head of the federal army, his military talents 
appeared to full advantage. His troops were not drilled ; they were 
in want of the necessary requisites for war, often even pay and food ; 
still by courage, foresight and restless activity he overcame all these 
impediments. The first contests were, in fact, unfavorable for the 
Americans. In the battle of Long Island they lost about 2,000 men 
(1776 A. D.); the British General Howe captured Fort Washington 
with about 3,000 Americans, and General Lee, whom Washington 
frequently ordered to join him with his force, did not obey him. It 
was but recently discovered that he was a traitor to the American 
cause. 

These successes made the enemies haughty and careless, but 
Washington surprised them at Trenton, where he captured one thou- 
sand Hessians (1776 A. D.), and at Princeton (1777 A. D.), and 
routed them. Franklin's negotiations at the French court were so 

Who offered the resolution of independence in congress ? When was it 
adopted ? Who wrote the Declaration of Independence ? When was it adopted ? 
What of the statue of George III.? | 93. With what auxiliaries did Eng- 
land fight the Americans ? Give some account of Washington's youth ? Who 
gained the battle of Long Island and captured Fort Washington ? What of 
General Lee ? Of the battles at Trenton and at Princeton ? 



220 

■effective beforehand that officers with implements of war were 
secretly permitted to go to America. Many volunteers also came 
to assist the sons of liberty. Among them Lafayette, Kosciusko, 
Count Pulaski, Barons de Kalb and Steuben, distinguished themselves. 
The former, at his own expense, fitted out a ship for the Americans 
and hastened to join them, in spite of an order by the court for- 
bidding him to do so, and shed his blood for them. 

In the campaign of 1777, Washington went to Brandy wine to 
prevent the British from moving northward to Philadelphia, but was 
defeated, and the British took possession of this city. He then 
attacked a portion of the British army at German town, but was 
again repulsed. The enemies also took Forts Mifflin and Mercer, 
below Philadelphia. Washington then went into winterquarters at 
Valley Forge. It was a gloomy winter; his army was dispirited 
and miserably supplied ; many soldiers were barefooted ; they were 
scantily clad, ill-fed and unpaid. In these times, " that tried men's 
souls," Thomas Paine published and continued a new series of 
pamphlets to the end of the war, entitled " The Crisis," by which 
he raised the sunken spirit of the American army, and powerfully 
promoted the work which led to the glorious result of the contest. 

More brilhant were the successes of the Americans in New 
. York State. Burgoyne, the British general, sent two detachments 
to capture a qua;ntity of stores at Bennington, Vermont ; both were 
defeated by the Colonels John Stark and Warner, with a body of 
" Green Mountain Boys " and New Hampshire militia. He then 
advanced on Stillwater, where he was defeated; he next attempted 
to retreat to Fort Edward. The Americans, under General Gates, 
advanced so rapidly that they cut off his retreat, and surrounded 
his army at Saratoga ; he had to surrender with nearly 6,000 men 
(October 17th). 

When the French king heard of Burgoyne's surrender, he hesi- 
tated no longer; he acknowledged the independence of the United 
States, made a treaty of alliance with them, and assisted them with 

What did Franklin effect at the court of the French king ? What volunteers 
aided the Americans ? What of Lafayette ? Of the battles at Brandywine and 
Germantown? Of Forts Mifflin and Mercer ? Describe the winterquarters in 
Valley Forge. By what pamphlets did Thomas Paine encourage the army ? What 
were the successes of the Americans in the State of New York ? Who defeated 
Burgoyne at Bennington ? Where was he again defeated ? Who captured his 
army at Saratoga ? How many men were made prisoners ? Who made a treaty 
■of alliance with the United States ? 



221 

money and troops. Spain and Holland joined France, and in the 
East Indies the formidable Hyder Ali was fighting England (see 
§ 90). Humiliated, England now offered peace to the colonies ; but 
not willing to acknowledge their independence, the contest was con- 
tinued. In Germany, Emperor Joseph II. forbade the levymg of 
troops for England; Frederic II. also declared for America. About 
2,000 German mercenaries deserted from the British army to the 
Americans. 

The contest continued, but for three years showed no great 
results ; therefore a summary of the events will suffice for the out- 
lines of a Universal History. In April, 17 78," a French fleet sailed 
for America, the effect of which was the retreat of the British from 
Philadelphia. Washington followed and overtook them near Mon- 
mouth, New Jersey. Here an action took place, but owing to the 
bad conduct of General Lee, nothing was gained. He was dis- 
missed from service for insolent behavior to General Washington. 
When the French fleet arrived in America, it sailed out to give bat- 
tle to the British. But a violent storm arose, which so damaged it 
that it had to put into Boston for repairs. After refitting, it sailed 
for the West Indies, and the British had to follow it. A British 
division, sent by General Clinton, captured Savannah and defeated 
General Ash at Brier Creek. One year after, the French fleet 
returned from the West Indies, and appeared off Savannah (1779 
A. D.) It assaulted the city, with General Lincoln, but the attack 
was repulsed ; after this the fleet sailed home. 

The next year (1780 A. D.) Clinton took Charleston with 
about 5,000 men. Gates was defeated at Sander's Creek. Marion, 
Sumter, and other dashing officers, however, collected irregular 
troops, and carried on a partisan warfare. Eight of them attacked 
and defeated a large force of British and royalists on King's Moun- 
tain. At Cowpens, General Morgan whipped the British cavalry 
leader, Tarleton. General Green attacked the British at Guilford 
Court House, at Ninety-six and Eutaw Springs, but the actions were 
not decisive. 

Some other incidents of these campaigns must yet be mentioned. 

What of Spain, Holland and Hyder Ali ? Why was the war continued ? What 
of Joseph II. ? Of Frederic II. ? Of German mercenaries ? Give an account of 
the operations of the French fleet. Who captured Savannah ? What city did 
Clinton lake the next year ? What officers carried on a partisan warfare ? Who was 
successful on King's Mountain ? Who at Cowpens ? At Guilford Court House .■*" 
At Ninety-six ? At Eutaw Springs ? 



222 

During the summer of 1779, the American commissioners at Paris 
iitted out a squadron, which was placed under command of Paul 
Jones, a brave Scotch-American. He fell in with two English 
frigates convoying a fleet of merchantmen, attacked them, and after 
a bloody fight, captured both. — General Benedict Arnold had been 
court-martialed for appropriating public money, but was forgiven by 
Washington, and put by him in command of the fortress of West 
Point. Being filled with a desire for revenge, Arnold promised to 
General Clinton in New York, to deliver up West Point for a reward 
of 10,000 pounds sterling and a general's commission (1780 A. D.) 
The general sent Major Andre to him for a personal interview, who, 
when returning in disguise, was seized by three militiamen, and hung 
as a spy. Arnold escaped to a British vessel. Congress gave each 
of the captors a medal, and a pension for life. — In the course of the 
war the paper money of congress depreciated greatly in value. It 
took thirty, and at last fifty and sixty dollars of it to make one dollar 
in specie. It finally became impossible to purchase provisions with 
this currency. Washington had to take supplies from the surround- 
ing country. The winter of 1 780-1 781 brought new sufferings to 
his soldiers, and 1,300 of the Pennsylvania line left the camp and 
marched for Philadelphia in order to demand relief from congress. 
A committee of congress met them at Princeton, satisfied their de- 
mands, and they returned to camp. In order to better the con- 
dition of the army, congress appointed Robert Morris, a wealthy 
Philadelphia merchant, financial agent of the government. 

At last (178 1 A. D.) the decision of the long contest drew near. 
At Yorktown, in Virginia, CornwaUis, the British general, fortified 
himself, because Clinton, in New York, wished him to be on hand 
in case Washington should attack New York. Washington really 
had formed the design of attacking the British in New York ; but 
he now gave it up, as he thought he could accomplish more by 
striking a blow at CornwaUis in Virginia. He, however, continued 

What of Paul Jones ? Give an account of Benedict Arnold's treason. What 
of Major Andre ? How was he captured and punished ? How were his captors 
rewarded ? In what condition was the paper money of congress ? What bad 
effects did its depreciation produce ? What of the Pennsylvania soldiers ? Who 
was appointed financial agent ? Where was the contest of the United States 
with Great Britain finally decided ? Why did CornwaUis fortify himself at 
Yorktown ? What design had Washington really formed ? Why did he give it 
up ? In what manner did he deceive Clinton ? When did he march for York- 
town? 



223 

to act so as to make Clinton think he was really going to attack 
New York. In September, when everything was ready, he suddenly 
drew off and made forced marches for Yorktown. Here, united 
with Lafayette, Kosciusko and the French general, he surrounded the 
British army from the land side, while the French fleet blocked up the 
British by sea. CornwaUis stood the siege for three weeks. Fmd- 
ing his situation hopeless, he surrendered his army of over 7,000 
men with the implements of war (19th of October). After this 
blow England abandoned all hope of subduing her colonies. She 
offered them first a separate peace, and consented, as the demand 
was rejected, to general peace by the treaty of Paris (3d of Sept., 
1783). By this treaty Great Britain acknowledged the independ- 
ence of the United States. Their boundaries were agreed upon as 
extending northward to the Great Lakes, and westward to the Missis- 
sippi.— The siege of Gibraltar, begun during this war by the Span- 
iards, is yet to be mentioned. Elliott, the English general, defended 
the fortress for three years, and finally destroyed their floating bat- 
teries with red-hot cannon balls. 

To the young republic the care of framing a suitable federal 
constitution still remained. A convention of delegates from all the 
States met for this purpose in Philadelphia. But when they con- 
sidered the old constitution (adopted in 1777, and called the "Arti- 
cles of Confederation"), they found it so faulty that it was resolved 
to form a new constitution. It was framed, and adopted by a 
majority of the people (i 787-1 789 A. D.) Washington was twice 
president of the United States, the capital of which received his 
name. He administered the laws with vigor and wisdom. After 
the expiration of his terms he returned to his country home at 
Mount Vernon, where he died in 1799, praised by his fellow-citizens 
as the founder of their liberty. In his last will he declared his 
slaves free, and bequeathed considerable sums for the foundation of 
a university, and a free school for poor children. His friend Frank- 
lin had died several years before (1790 A. D.) He also had be- 
queathed large sums for the establishment of useful institutions. 

How was the British army hemmed in by land and sea ? How long did Corn- 
wallis stand the siege ? Give an account of the capitulation. What was the 
result of the victory ? Give the date of the treaty. What did this treaty acknowl- 
edge? State what is said of the boundaries of the United States. What of the 
siege of Gibraltar during this war ? What of the origin of the constitution of 
the United States ? Who was the first president ? What was his last will ? What 
legacies did he bequeath ? 



224 

The National Assembly of France publicly mourned his demise. 
Below his bust they wrote the words : " He seized the lightning 
from the heaven, and the sceptres from the tyrants " (eripuit fulgus 
coelis and sceptra tyrannis). 



SECOND OHAPTEE-HISTOEY OP CIVILIZATION, 



I 94. Political Condition of Europe. Constitution of the 
United States. 

In Europe the motive of the poHtical actions was no longer 
religious inspiration, but narrow-minded policy. It was the princi- 
ple of politics to preserve the equilibrium between the separate 
States, especially between France and Austria. The nations were 
little more than a property of the governing families. Their liberty 
and independence was out of the question. The luxury of the 
courts and the standing armies consumed the blessings of nature 
and the fruits of labor. Agriculture and industry, in fact, throve, 
but the landlords and the owners of factories, for the most part, 
earned the profit of the workmen. In Germany, especially, the 
two-fold yoke of the landlords and the sovereigns oppressed the 
people. The meetings of the diets were changed into mere con- 
gresses of embassadors ; and in Switzerland the levying of mercen- 
aries continued. 

In America, William Penn gave to his colony an excellent consti- 
tution ; the two principal points in his legislation were civil and relig- 
ious liberty. He declared to the people : " You shall be governed by 
laws of your own making. As liberty of conscience is a right which 
all men have received from nature with their existence, it is resolved 
that nobody shall be compelled to assist at any kind of public wor- 
ship." Agriculture and commerce should be the principal founda- 
tion of his colony. Down to the Declaration of Independence, the 
colonies were all under the dominion of the crown of England but 

How did the National Assembly of France manifest its grief when Franklin 
died ? What words were written below his bust ? ? 94. What was the motive 
for political actions in Europe ? What was the principle of politics ? How were 
the nations considered by the sovereigns ? How were the blessings of the coun- 
tries consumed ? Who earned the profit, for the most part, from real estates and 
factories ? Who, in America, gave to his colony a good constitution ? What 
were its two principal points? 'What did he say about liberty of conscience? 
What shovild be the foundation of his colony ? 



225 

governed in different ways, mostly by royal governors, who were 
appointed by the crown ; some by proprietors, as Pennsylvania and 
Maryland ; others by charters given by the king, and granting certain 
political rights and privileges, as Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
Rhode Island. 

Penn's constitution in later time became the foundation of the 
constitution of the United States. According to this document, 
they form a confederacy consisting of different independent repub- 
lics, which, by the general congress, are united. This congress 
has the right to make contracts, to declare war, to make 
general laws and to levy taxes. It is composed of the House 
of Representatives and of the Senate; its members are the 
delegates of the different States. The executive power belongs 
to the President of the United States; he is also the general-in- 
chief of the army and appoints, as a rule, the civil officers of the 
United States, with the consent of the Senate. Both he and the 
members of Congress are periodically elected. No law can be 
made against liberty of religion and the press, nor against the right 
to petition the government. The constitutions of the single States 
are framed upon similar principles. Every citizen is hound to mili- 
tary service. In the United States there is neither a State Church 
nor a caste of nobihty. — Slavery was tolerated in the Southern States. 

I 95. Condition of the Church. Voltaire. J.J.Rousseau. 
Abolition of the Order of Jesuits. 

Religious toleration was almost unknown in Europe, proof 
of which is seen in the persecutions of the Protestants in France,. 
Hungary and England (see § 85, § 87 and § 88). In the arch- 
bishopric of Saltzburg also 20,000 Protestants had to emigrate,, 
because persecuted by the bishop (1731 A. D.) Single individuals 
were also persecuted. When J. J. Rousseau published his far-famed 

By whom were the colonies governed ? Especially Pennsylvania and Mary- 
land ? Massachusetts, etc. ? Give the outlines of the Constitution of the 
United States. What do they form? What rights has the congress ? How is 
it composed ? To whom belongs the executive power ? What other preroga- 
tives does the President possess ? What of the term of the offices of the Presi- 
dent and of the members of congress ? What of liberty of religion and the 
press ? Of the right of petition ? How are the constitutions of the single States 
framed ? To what service is every citizen bound ? Is there in the United 
States a State Church or a caste of nobility ? In what part of the Union 
was slavery tolerated? I95. What about religious toleration in Europe ? Give 
examples. How was J. J. Rousseau and his book "Emile" treated? 

(15) 



226 

book " Emile," it excited the hatred of the Catholic and Protestant 
clergy ; the book was burned in Paris, torn into pieces by the hang- 
man in Geneva, and he himself banished from this city, though he 
was a citizen of it. 

North America was more tolerant as regards religious liberty. 
William Penn and the charter of Rhode Island granted liberty of 
conscience, yet even here some instances of persecution occurred. 
When the Quakers settled among the Puritans in New England, violent 
religious quarrels arose between the two sects. The Quakers were 
banished, and if they returned to the colony, flogged, imprisoned 
and executed. After some time capital punishment was abolished. 
Presumptive witches, too, were often accused of sorcery, and several 
were burned at the stake. — Sectarianism was increasing. In the 
Protestant Church the Quakers, Pietists and Herrenhuters took 
origin, and aside from many sound principles, they confessed also 
some eccentric opinions. 

About the middle of the eighteenth century the epoch of 
Rationalism began, as liberal authors commenced to interpret the 
Bible in such a manner that its contents would harmonize with the 
dictates of reason. The Deists attacked every revealed religion, 
preserving only the belief in God (Deus). Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau 
and Thomas Paine are the most prominent among them. The for- 
mer wielded the weapons of wit and irony against superstition with 
great success ; on the contrary, it was warmth of feeling by which 
Rousseau promoted religious enlightenment. Thomas Paine, in his 
book, " The Age of Reason," subjected the Bible to severe criticism. 

A hard blow was struck at papacy during this period by the 
abolition of the Order of Jesuits. As their general procurator in 
France transmitted a large sum for a debt to a trading-house in 
Marseilles, and the money was captured by the English, that house 
demanded payment from the entire Order in France: as it was 
refused, a law-suit was commenced against it, which brought on an 
examination of its inner organization. Choiseul, minister of Louis 
XV., found that the society was endangering the State ; it was there- 
fore abolished (1764 A. D.) 

Where, in America, was liberty of conscience granted ? How did the Puri- 
tans in New England deal with the Quakers and witches ? What new sects 
originated in the Protestant Church ? What of Rationalism ? Of Deists ? 
Give the names of some prominent Deists. By what methods did Voltaire and 
Rousseau attack superstition ? By what incidents was the abolition of the Order 
of Jesuits in France, .Spain and Portugal brought about ? W^hat did the Order 
in France refuse to pay ? What minister caused its abolishment ? Why ? 



227 

The Spanish Jesuits had founded a State in Paraguay and Uru- 
guay, which they governed under Spain's sovereignty. As, at that 
time, Spain intended to cede some portions of that State to Portu- 
gal, the natives, led by the Jesuits, opposed the government and 
commenced war. Besides, the Jesuits in Portugal were said to 
have participated in a secret conspiracy against King Joseph I, 
Therefore, Pombal, the energetic minister of the king, required the 
pope to abohsh the Order in Portugal, and as he did not consent to 
do it, the minister abolished it himself, and dispatched the Fathers 
to Rome. Their goods were confiscated; the war in Paraguay 
caused also their suspension in Spain (1767 A. D.) In one day 
their colleges were closed, their treasures seized, and they them- 
selves carried to Rome. Pope Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli), at last 
abolished the Order in all countries (1773 A. D.) ; it was tolerated 
only in Russia and Prussia. 

1 96. Arts and Sciences. Inventions. Cook's Voyages 
of Discovery. 

Civilization spread in Europe, aflecting even the lower ranks. 
New universities were estabhshed, and public libraries, observatories, 
botanical gardens, academies, normal schools, ladies' seminaries and 
institutions for the deaf and dumb founded. In the United States 
were founded, during this period, Harvard University (1636 A. D.), 
William and Mary College (1692 A. D.), Yale College (1700 A. D.) 
and Brown University (1764 A. D.) The first newspaper was 
printed in Boston (1704 A. D.) 

In France, under Louis XIV., the sciences and arts celebrated 
their golden era. All were cultivated in special academies. French 
became the favorite language of the courts and well-educated peo- 
ple. Paris was the center of modern culture. Some of the most 
renowned artists and scholars of that country were Peter Corneille 
(le Cid) and Racine (Iphigenie), tragic poets, and Moliere, the 
■greatest writer of comedies. His best plays are " The Miser " and 

What had the Spanish Jesuits founded in Paraguay and Uruguay? Who 
commenced war against the government ? Who were the leaders of the war ? 
How were they punished ? What was the reason of their suspension in Por- 
tugal ? Who abolished the Order in all countries ? 1 96. What was the condi- 
tion of civilization in Europe ? By what institutes was it promoted ? What 
iiniversities and colleges were founded in the United States ? Under whom did 
arts and sciences, in France, celebrate their golden era ? Which was the favorite 
language of the courts ? What city was the center of modern culture ? Name 
tragic poets. Who wrote the best comedies ? 



228 

• 

" TartufFe." In the latter play he represents a hypocrite who, under 
the mask of piety, hides a vicious life. Others on the list were : 
Boileau, the French Horace ; La Fontaine and Florian, fabulists ; 
Fenelon, author of Telemaque, a novel which was translated into all 
languages of Europe ; Montesquieu, who in his work, " Spirit of the 
Laws, " recommends England's constitution as the best ; the natu- 
ralist Buftbn, and the two philosophers, Voltaire and J. J. Rousseau 
(who both died in the same year, 1778 A. D.) Voltaire was also 
poet, historian and mathematician. Some of his best works are : 
" The Henriade," an epic poem, in which he celebrates Henry IV. ; 
his plays, " Death of Csesar " and "Zaire, " and the life of Charles 
XII. Rousseau wrote " Emile, " and " The Social Contract." The 
first work treats of education and instruction ; the second of demo- 
cratic constitution. Philosophers : Bayle and Descartes ; pulpit 
orators, Bossuet, Bourdaloue and Massillon ; novelists, Le Sage (the 
adventures of " Gil Bias, " and the " Limping Devil," both satuic 
fictions, picturing the dissolute manners of his age), etc. Both works 
received much praise. The gigantic work of the encyclopedists 
d'Alembert, Diderot and others comprises all sciences and arts. 

England emulated France in superiority of its civihzation, and 
even surpassed it in political eloquence, as well as in the mathemat- 
ical and philosophical sciences. Some of her poets were : Gold- 
smith (" The Vicar of Wakefield,'' " The Deserted Village," " She 
Stoops to Conquer"), Young, Pope ("The Rape of the Lock"), 
Richard B. Sheridan ("The School for Scandal"), Thomson, etc. 
The latter, in the Seasons, described the charms of nature. Essay- 
ists : Addison (" The Spectator"), Steele ("The Tattler"), and 
Dean Swift. Philosophers : Locke (Essay on Human Under- 
standing), etc. Among the jjarliamentary orators were : William 
Pitt, father and son, Fox and Burke. Noted astronomers : Hallai, 
Newton (who already, when twenty-four years old, made great 
discoveries in mathematics), and Herschel, a German, who resided 
in London, and aided by his gigantic telescope, greatly enlarged 
the knowledge of the starry heavens. 

Among the Americans Franklin excelled in philosophical and 
practical writings. Thomas Paine, by his theological and political 

Who is represented by " Tartuffe ? " What fabulists ?■ What of Telemaque ? 
What did Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau write? What the encyclopedists ? 
In what sciences did England surpass France ? Name some English poets, 
philosophers, orators and astronomers; some American authors ; some German 
mathematicians, philosophers, poets, pedagogues and composers. 



229 

works (" Common Sense, " " The Crisis "). Holland: Spinoza, one 
of the greatest philosophers of his age (1677 A. D). 

Germany was sUghtly less advanced in civilization. Still, it 
already had great mathematicians, e. g., Fahrenheit, and sagacious 
philosophers, as Thomasius, who fearlessly opposed the trials of 
witches, Leibniz, Lessing, but especially Kant. The most eminent 
poets were Lessing, author of the plays " Emilia Galotti," " Minna 
von Barnhelm," and " Nathan the Wise." In the latter he exposes 
the sad consequences of superstition, and recommends religious 
toleration. There were besides, Klopstock, author of " The Mes- 
siade," Wieland, Goethe and Schiller (see § 133). Basedow and 
Salzman deserved well in the department of education. Celebrated 
composers were Gluck, Joseph Haydn and Mozart. — In Sweden 
Linne classified all plants according to the number of their stamens. 

In Italy sciences and arts were sinking ; but still the poets Gozzi 
and Alfieri, the mathematicians Cassini and Toricelli, and the statu- 
ary Canova were prominent. 

In this period were invented : The barometer, the thermometer, 
the air-pump and the lightning rod (by Franklin, 1752 A. D.); the 
balloon by Montgolfiere (1783 A. D.), and the steam engine by 
Watt (1764 A. D.) 

Under George III., James Cook made his great voyages of dis- 
covery. In his youth he was a sailor, then became crew's cook, 
and later assistant of the pilot. Understanding the advantage of 
mathematical knowledge, he provided instruction for himself by 
his savings, and became a great navigator. His first voyage was to 
the Pacific Ocean (1768-1771 A. D.) In New Zealand he dis- 
covered hemp ; on the second voyage he discovered New Caledonia, 
South Georgia and the Sandwich land. On the third, he should 
examine if it was possible to pass from the Atlantic through Belir- 
ing's Straits into the Pacific Ocean, and if, by this passage the East 
Indies could be reached sooner than by sailing around the Cape of 
Good Hope. He found in that northern region, in the midst of 
summer, impenetrable masses of ice, so that he was persuaded that 

Who was the great German philosopher ? What does Lessing recommend in 
*' Nathan the Wise ? " What renowned botanist of Sweden classified all plants ? 
What eminent poets, mathematicians and statuaries in Italy ? What inventions 
were made in this period ? Who was James Cook ? In what way did he be- 
come a great navigator ? In what ocean did he make his first voyage ? What 
discoveries did he make on the second voyage ? What was the obj ect of the 
third voyage ? Why did he not find his enterprise practicable ? Where was he 
killed ? 



230 

his enterprise was impracticable. He afterwards discovered the 
Sandwich Islands, but was there killed in a quarrel with the savages 
(1779 A. D.) 

KXERCISES. 

Biographies: Peter I. — (a) his self-education by journeys, ((^) his reforms, 
(c) his conduct towards his domestic enemies (towards his sister, first wife, son 
and body-guards); against foreign enemies (Charles XII. and the Turks); (d) 
his dealings with Menshikoff and Catharine. William Penn. — (a) founder of a 
colony in Pennsylvania, (i) constitution of the colony. Frederic II. — {a) in the 
Silesian wars, ((5) in the seven years' war, (c) at the partition df Poland, (d) in 
peace. Joseph II. — (a) his political and religious reforms, (d) their results. 
Washington. — (a) in war, (d) during peace. Franklin — (a) a self-educated man, 
(5) a popular author and inventor, (c) the representative of the colonies in England, 
{d) embassador in France, (e) his end. — Describe the contest of the United 
States for independence under the following headings: i. Causes of the war. 2. 
Forces of the British. 3. Foixes of the Americans, giving the names of their 
most important patriots and allies. 4. Their victories. 5. Their independence. 
Describe the battle at Bunker Hill. The constitution of the United States. In 
what countries were the Protestants persecuted ? When were the wars of the 
Spanish and Austrian succession waged ? And when the seven years' and the 
American wars ? In what wars did England and Austria jointly fight against 
France ? How many years elapsed from St. Bartholomew to the first partition of 
Poland? How long did Louis XIV., Peter I. and Frederic II. govern? How 
many years after Louis XIV. did Peter I. die ? . Give the names of two renowned 
French authors who died in the same year. 



231 

NINTH PERIOD 



FrotT] the Frencl^ Revolutioq to the Second Peace of 

Paris, Revolutioq and Political Reforms \r\ 

France, Wars Caused by It, Fronq 

1789 to 1815 A, D, 



A. PEENOH EEVOLUTION. 



1. POLITICAL EEFOEMS IN FB,AKCE-1789 to 1792 A. D. 



§ 97. Causes and Effects of the French Revolution. 

The revolution of the British colonies in America, in which 
France took such an energetic part, also excited in this country a 
longing for similar rights and liberties as the brave Americans had 
acquired. Ingenious authors like Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rous- 
seau enlightened the people concerning their rights. But the prin- 
cipal causes of the great revolution which shook not only France, 
but the whole of Europe, were the great demorahzation among the 
higher ranks of that country, the defective organization of the 
State, and the utter ruin of its finances. 

Nowhere had corruption of morals permeated everything so 
deeply as among the higher castes of France. Luxury and volup- 
tuousness had their sway in the courts of, Louis XIV. and of the dis- 
sipated Louis XV. Unbounded were the expenses of these kings. 
Besides, nobiUty and clergy were ignorant and haughty. The kmgs 
governed like tyrants ; the offices were venal, the tribunals hable to 
bribery. 

The public charges were divided very unequally. While the 
nobihty possessed immense property and took hold of all high civil 
and military employments, they contributed almost nothing to the 

1 97. What were the causes of the French revolution? How were the 
morals of the higher classes in France ? What of the expenses of the kings ? 
Were the public charges divided equally ? What of the possessions of the 
nobility and clergy ? To whom did the tithes belong ? What did the nobility 
and clergy contribute to the public taxes ? 



232 

public taxes. The numerous clergy held the finest part of the 
country, collected the tithes in the whole realm, and offered nothing 
for that to the State but voluntary, insignificant presents. Besides, 
there was an army of privileged ones who were largely exempted 
from taxation. The people, on the contrary, succumbed under the 
pressure of the public charges. Land-taxes, poll-taxes, property- 
taxes and a hundred other taxes were devised to exhaust their 
resources. The peasant, especially, was obliged to pay tithe; 
besides, he was a bondman, and forced to do socage-service. And 
finally, the common people had to do military service, while noble 
and distinguished men performed it only at their own free will. 

The last shock, which caused the outburst of the revolution, 
was given by the ruin of the finances; for the public debts had 
increased to an enormous degree, and the income of the State did 
not any longer suffice, by a large sum, to cover the expenses. The 
people could not give any more, and . the nobility and clergy would 
not, therefore revolution began. Unhappy, indeed, were its first 
effects upon France and Europe. Still, the former gained, forever, 
a free constitution, and in the other countries of Europe the rights 
of the citizens ever since were more highly appreciated. 

I 98. National Assembly. The Third Estate. Mirataeau. 

Louis XVL, called the Long-desired, ascended the throne in 
1774. His minister of finances, Necker, the friend of the people, 
demanded a limitation of the expenses of the court, and a reform 
of the system of taxes; but the court and the higher orders 
opposed this. He, therefore, resigned his ofiice, and, regretted 
by the whole nation, left the country (17S1 A. D.) New loans 
were procured, but finally*, when it was impossible to longer meet 
the ■ exigencies of the government, the king called an assembly 
of the notables — the chiefs of the nobility and clergy, and some 
deputies of the towns — in order to deliberate with them on the 
necessary ways and means in order to save the State. As the minis- 
ter of finances proposed a general taxation of the nobility and 
clergy, as well as of the commons, they vehemently opposed it, and 

Was the peasant free ? What about military service ? What gave to the 
revolution the last shock ? What were the first effects of the revolution? What 
its final gain ? \ 98. What did Minister Necker demand ? Who opposed him ? 
What followed after his resignation ? Whom vi^as the king obliged to call ? 
What for ? What did the minister of finances propose ? How was his demand 
received ? 



233 

compelled him to run away. The nation demanded the convoca- 
tion of the States- General, because it expected no relief but from 
that body, and the king, at last, yielded to the demand. Necker, 
too, was re-appointed minister of the finances. At his advice, the 
king declared himself to be ready to give up his unlimited power, 
and called 600 delegates of the third estate, and 600 more, partly 
of the nobility and partly of the clergy. 

They convened in Versailles, but the deputies of the commons 
were sHghted. They were not admitted into the rooms of the 
king, like those of the higher orders. They were obliged to wait 
for a time in a shed, etc. The clergy and nobihty insisted that there 
should be three assemblies, each possessing a veto on the acts of the 
others, while the commons demanded that ail should be united m 
one general assembly, without any distinction of orders. After 
long, useless negotiations the commons declared themselves the 
" National Assembly," representing the great majority of the nation. 
The people were delighted by this declaration, but the king was so 
provoked that he gave orders to stop the sessions of the diet, and 
locked up the hall of their meetings. Then the commons assem- 
bled in the tennis-court, and swore rather to die than to separate be- 
fore the promised State reform was accompHshed. The majority of 
the clergy now united with them. Now the king himself made his 
appearance in their midst, and expressed his displeasure to them, 
commanding them to vote by orders, in three special assemblies, 
and to separate. He went off. The deputies still remained in their 
seats. Then the royal master of ceremonies came, and repeated 
the king's order to evacuate the hall. In this decisive moment 
Count Mirabeau rose, exclaiming : " Report to those who sent you 
that we are here by the will of the nation, and that nothing but the 
force of bayonets can drive us away from our seats." At the same 
time the delegates declared all who would assail them traitors of the 
country. The king, seeing the firmness of the commons, yielded, 

What did the nation demand? What did the king do? Who was re-ap- 
pointed? What munber of delegates was called? Where did they meet? 
How were the deputies of the commons treated ? How many assemblies did 
the nobility and clergy want ? What did the commons demand ? What declar- 
ation did they make ? Who was provoked by their declaration? What orders 
did he give ? What next of the commons ? What did they swear to risk ? 
Who appeared in their midst ? What order did the master of ceremonies de- 
liver ? What did Mirabeau reply ? What did the delegates then declare ? What 
was the final effect of the declaration ? 



234 

because a general insurrection was to be feared, and ordered the two 
other houses to unite with them. 

I 99. Taking the Bastile. Abolition of Feudal Servitude. 

But the king had only simulated acquiescence; he collected 
50,000 men, for the most part foreign troops, around Paris and Ver- 
sailles, with the intention of dispersing the National Assembly and. 
of capturing its boldest speakers. The city of Paris was vehemently 
agitated by this measure ; even the women exhorted to a vigorous 
resistance. The French guards swore they would not fight the 
citizens, and other national troops followed their example. The 
National Assembly requested the king in several addresses to with- 
draw the foreign troops, in order that they might be able to deliberate 
in a free and undisturbed way ; he proposed to the Assembly to with- 
draw to another place, remote from the capital ; but Mirabeau in- 
sisted upon the demand that he should withdraw the troops. The 
king persisted in his refusal, dismissed Necker, and selected ministers 
from the party of the court. 

The dismission of Necker was the signal of the general insurrec- 
tion in Paris, where the dissolution of the National Assembly and 
an attack of the foreign troops was feared. The alarm-bells were 
sounded, arms hurriedly forged, 30,000 guns taken from the hospital 
of the invalids, and in two days 60,000 men armed. Now the out- 
cry was heard : " No peace nor liberty as long as the Bastile is 
standing!" The bands rushed upon the fortress (the 14th of July),, 
and, assisted by the French guards, after a few hours took the place 
which the court imagined to be impregnable. Its conquest cost the 
life of many citizens; but the garrison was put to the sword, the 
old bulwark of tyranny was demolished, and songs of liberty 
resounded throughout the city and the whole country. 

In Versailles, meanwhile, festivals were arranged, at which the 
princes and princesses lavished presents and caresses on the soldiers. 
The night from the 14th to the 15th of July was set down for the 
execution of a violent measure.' The commander of the royal 
troops had received full power to carry it out. The king should 

g 99. Wherefore did the king collect an army ? How did this measure 
affect Paris and the French guards ? What did the National Assembly request 
of the king ? What measures did he take ? Give an account of the insurrec- 
tion in Paris, and of the capture of the Bastile. What was meanwhile arranged 
in Versailles ? What violent measure was to be executed in the night of the 
14th of July ? 



235 

take to flight, the National Assembly should be dissolved, and the 
royal power restored. 

A carriage was continually kept ready for the flight, and the 
body-guards did not undress for several days. The National Assem- 
bly knew all these projects. Afraid of being dispersed and of see- 
ing the States-Hall forcibly locked up, it was also sitting during 
night. The capture of the Bastile released it from all alarm; finally, 
the king removed the troops and again recalled Necker. 

Immediately after the 14th of July, the noblemen left the country 
in large bands; the princes of the royal house set the example. 
It was their design to return with open force, and, supported by the 
foreign countries, to repossess themselves of their old command, and 
to be revenged by the blood of their enemies. In order to bafile 
their purpose, national guards were organized in the whole realm ; in 
eight days three millions of citizens were armed. Instead of the 
lily,_the three-colored cockade (a ribbon on the hat) was worn. 

In Paris, the populace sacrificed many victims to its vengeance. 
Hunger, too, contributed to its excesses. Party-leaders augmented 
the commotion. The duke of Orleans especially belonged to these. 
He was a vicious man who, longing for the crown, had bought many, 
followers among the populace. In the provinces also anarchy pre- 
vailed. The peasants, crying, " Peace to the cottages ! War to the 
palaces!" marched against the castles of the noblemen, against 
monasteries and toll-houses, and destroyed them. Gangs of rob- 
bers, committing arson, passed through the land. 

The National Assembly took serious measures against the ex- 
cesses of the multitude; but Count Noailles pointed out that the 
disturbances and the sufferings of the nation generally were caused by 
the feudal services, under the pressure of which it must sink down. 
He, therefore, motioned their abolishment. All the members of the 
Assembly enthusiastically consented to this. In future there ought 
to be only one nation and one realm. In a few hours the fetters 
fell which the French nation had borne since the middle ages. 
Now, in the memorable evening session of the 4th of August, were 
abolished : Servitude, the torture, every kind of socage, the juris- 

Why did the Assembly also sit during night ? What of the emigrants ? 
Who set the example for them ? What was their design ? Why were national 
guards organized ? What cockade was worn ? What excesses happened in 
Paris and in the provinces ? What buildings did the peasants destroy ? Who 
augmented the commotion ? What duke especially? How did the Assembly 
act then? What did Count Noailles point 'out ? What did he motion? What 
services were then abolished ? 



236 

diction of the landlords, the tithes, the privileges of the higher 
orders in the payment of taxes and in the claims of offices and dig- 
nities, the venality of the tribunals, all privileges of single provinces, 
towns and corporations, etc. The clergymen, immediately after 
that, retracted what they had granted in this night ; but they were 
-answered that the lands held by the clergy were national property. 

^ lOO. Conducting Louis to Paris. 

The king soon caused troops to again come to Versailles. At a 
banquet given to them by the body-guards, the queen presented 
the Dauplim in her arms. They drank, with drawn swords, the 
health of the royal family. The national cockade was trampled 
under foot, and the court-ladies distributed the white cockade. 
After three days the festival was repeated. This caused general 
indignation in Paris. Added to this, the refusal of the king to 
approve several articles of the new constitution, the rumor of his 
imminent flight, and of the secret preparations for a counter revolu- 
tion, finally famine and want of bread in the capital, the city 
believed there would be no end of its apprehensions till king and 
National Assembly were again in the midst of it. The poor, be- 
sides, hoped for bread and support from the presence of the king. 

Several thousand women of the suburbs marched to the town- 
house, where they armed themselves, and from there, led by a citi- 
zen, advanced towards Versailles. They were followed by a crowd 
of savage men who were armed with pikes and clubs, in order to 
make the body-guards, but especially the queen, whose bad influence 
upon the king was kno"wn, feel their hatred. Finally the national 
guards also set out to conduct the king to Paris. I^afayette, their 
commander, went with them only by compulsion, and in order to 
prevent mischief. The women, who arrived first, expressed their 
distress to the king, having had no bread for their children for three 
days, and demanded of him, together with the National Assembly, 
to declare that he would accept all articles upon which it had 
already resolved, and go to Paris. The king so declared. At mid- 
Mention some of them. In what night was this accomplished? Who re- 
tracted the grant? ^ loo. Relate the doings of the body-guards and of the 
queen at a banquet. Whom did the city desire to have in her midst? For what 
reasons ? Who marched to the town-house and from there to Versailles ? 
Who followed the women ? Why ? Who set out finally ? Why ? What did 
the women demand ? 



237 

night the national guards also arrived. At dawn the savage crowd 
mentioned before, for plunder, assailed the castle, broke into the 
apartments of the queen, who hardly could escape mto the room of _ 
the king, and murdered several body-guards. But now Lafayette 
met the enraged mob, drove them away, and restored peace. The 
king allowed himself to be led to Paris by the multitude. The 
heads of two life-guards were carried on pikes m front of the pro- 
cession The National Assembly soon followed. Louis protested 
again that he would give up the rights of a sovereign, and become 
the limited chief of a repubUc. The nation received his declaration 

with exultation. ^ i e ^ 

The National Assembly earnestly continued its task, in tuture 
there ought to be only one chamber of the delegates. To the 
king the executive power and the right of the veto for a term of 
two legislatures was conceded, and his person declared inviolable ; 
but the ministers should be responsible. The church property and 
the crown-demesne were declared national property, and sold m 
order to reimburse the national debt. In this manner bankruptcy 
of the State was avoided. Then the abolishment of all ecclesiastical 
orders and convents followed. The Church ought to cease to be a 
State in the State. The sustenance of the king and clergy was 
honorably provided for. The administration of justice was created 
anew, especially the jury instituted, citizenship conferred upon the 
Israehtes, and all titles, escutcheons, and marks of distinction ot 
the nobility were abrogated. The king consented to all these reso- 
lutions of the Assembly. 

On the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile (i4tli of July, 
17Q0A D), a general festival of the covenant was celebrated m 
the Mars-field at Paris, at which the deputies of the national 
guards and of the troops of the line, the king and the National 
Assembly swore to maintain the constitution. The same oath was 
taken the same day by all citizens of France, assembled m large 
camps. The priests alone, for the most part, refused it. They even 
provoked the people against the National^Assemblj^^nd^^u^^ 

led the king to Paris ? What of the heads of the two life-guards ? What d^ 
the Assembly continue ? What power should the king have ? Who should be 
responsible? How was bankruptcy of the State avoided? ^l-t of convents ? 
For whose sustenance was honorably provided? What of a jury? Of titles and 
. other distinctions of the nobility ? Who consented to these reso utions of the 
Assembly ? Huw was the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile celebrated ? 
Who swore allegiance to the constitution ? Who refused the oath ? 



238 

name of God, preached public revolt. The pope praised their 
obstinacy, and declared the employments of those who took the 
oath forfeited. 

2. REVOLUTIONARY WARS. 



I lOl. Flight of the King. The Constitution Finished. 

While the National Assembly zealously labored for the welfare 
of the country, the king again planned his flight. Large sums of 
money were put aside. At the frontier of Luxemburg, where he 
intended to flee, an army was ready to receive him, and on differ- 
ent points of the road leading there, divisions of troops were 
placed for his protection. His intention was, if his flight would 
succeed, to return with the emigrants, and to again subdue 
the nation with the assistance of the army and of the German 
emperor. First the women departed. Then (the 20th of June) 
the king, the queen, their children, the Count of Provence (oldest 
brother of the king, and later King Louis XVIII. ), and his sister 
suddenly disappeared. In a declaration left by Louis, and written 
by himself, he rejected the resolutions of the National Assembly he 
had before this ratified, and made known his design to overturn the 
new organization of the State. France heard the news of his 
flight calmly. The National Assembly, which was sitting continu- 
ously for seven days and nights, hastily made the necessary 
preparations for the government of the realm, and ordered all per- 
sons to be stopped who would leave the country. 

Meanwhile, the king had proceeded as far as St. Menehould, in 
Lorraine. Here postmaster Drouet recognized him; his son, in the 
midst of night, hastened before him to Varennes. The citizens of^ 
this town blocked up the bridge over which the king had to ride, 
and took him prisoner. Now the tocsins were sounded all round, 
and the king had to return to Paris between the files of the national 
guards. On his arrival there a death-like silence prevailed. Only 
now and then the cry was audible : " God save- the nation ! " All 
heads remained covered ; the arms were lowered, and when Louis 
alighted at his palace, single voices were heard : " To the lantern ! " 

What did the priests preach? What of the pope? ^ 10 1. Give an account 
of the designs and arrangements of the king. Wlio departed first ? Who after- 
wards ? What declaration did Louis leave ? What preparations did the Assem- 
bly make ? Who took the king prisoner ? What had he to do ? How was he 
received in Paris ? 



239 

In the meantime he was suspended from his office; still, the efforts 
of the moderate party were successful, and he was soon reinstated. 

After many domestic storms and obstacles, the National Assem- 
bly finally finished its grand work, and declaring the revolution 
ended, it left to the king to designate the place and time for 
examining the constitution, and, as he pleased, either to accept or 
reject it. He gave it his approval, and confirmed it by oath. Fes- 
tivals were celebrated in the whole realm, and a general amnesty 
proclaimed. Besides the already enumerated articles, the constitu- 
tion further granted personal liberty, equality before the law, Hberty 
of conscience and of the press. The National Assembly dissolved 
itself, and the Legislative took its place (September 30th). 

Not long before this Count Mirabeau, the soul of the National 
Assembly and the idol of the people, had died. When the nobility, 
in the election of the ordres, had passed him unheeded, he took 
refuge with the commons, was chosen delegate by them, and 
defended their interests with the greatest energy. He was the first 
one interred in the church of St. Genevieve, the temple of honor of 
the great French citizens. This privilege, after him, was conferred 
upon Voltaire, Rousseau, and others. But when, in later times, his 
secret correspondence with the king and queen was discovered, his 
remains were again removed from the temple. 

I 102. Legislative Assembly. "War of Austria and Prus- 
sia. Suspension of the King. The Jacobins. 

The emigrants, the royal princes at their head, together with the 
foreign sovereigns, rose against the new constitution. On the fron- 
tier of the realm 30,000 emigrants stood in arms, inciting the for- 
eign monarchs to wage war against their country.. Several of the 
latter promised them assistance; Emperor Francis II. threatened it 
most vehemently of all. The National Assembly had in vain pro- 
tested its pacific intentions to give up forever all wars of conquest, 
and inserted the protestation even in the document of the constitu- 
tion ; it had in vain avoided everything that could offend the em- 

What could he choose to do when the Assembly had finished the work of the 
constitution ? What did he do ? What further rights did this document grant ? 
Who took the place of the Assembly ? What of Mirabeau ? Where was he in- 
terred ? When were his remains removed from the temple ? | 102. Who 
rose against the new constitution ? How many emigrants stood in arms on the 
frontier ? What monarchs promised them assistance ? What had the National 
Assembly protested ? 



240 

peror ; he was bent upon war. When France demanded that the 
electoral prince of Treves should remove the armed emigrants, and 
in case of refusal, threatened war against him, the emperor sent 
him auxiliary forces, alhed with Frederic William II., king of Prus- 
sia, and posted several corps of the army along the French frontier. 
At last he directly declared that he and his ally had resolved to re- 
establish the royal power in France. Withal, he called the rulers of 
that country a furious party, endeavoring to overturn all govern- 
ments. After this declaration, the Legislative assembly almost 
unanimously resolved to wage war against the sovereign Francis,, 
not against his subjects;, on the contrary, it promised to these 
friendship and protection (1792 A. D.) The king of Prussia, sev- 
eral other German sovereigns, and Sardinia, supported the emperor. 
Louis made defective and slow preparations for war, secretly enter- 
taining the hope of seeing the arms of the allies victorious. 

The war at the beginning was unfortunate for France. The 
duke of Brunswick, commander of the united armies of Austria and 
Prussia, joined besides by 20,000 emigrants, invaded the country 
and directed his march, without delay, towards the capital. In a 
proclamation he ordered the nation to repent its acts and to submit, 
threatening, in case of resistance, punishment and utter destruc- 
tion. But this outrageous address only tended to further inflame the 
indignation of the people. New multitudes, determined to live and 
die for liberty, rushed into the camps. Dumouriez, at Grandpre, m 
the Champagne, sustained an attack of the more numerous enemies 
for three days, and Kellerman held his ground at Valmy against 
the terrible fire of the Prussian cannons. After this the allied army 
retreated, for the National Convent had declared that it was beneath 
the dignity of a free people to negotiate with the despots as long as 
they remained on the soil of liberty. The national army followed 
the enemies, and leagued with tempests and rains, annihilated most 
of them. France, after a few months, was entirely released from 
the foreign mercenaries. 

In the meantime, Louis XVI. was no longer king. The National 

What of the electoral prince of Treves? Of the king of Prussia? Of 
Francis II.? What did the Legislative Assembly declare against the latter? 
Who supported him? What preparations did Louis make? Hom^ was the 
commencement of the war for France ? What was the nation, in a proclamation, 
ordered to do ? What was the effect of this proclamation ? What of Dumouriez 
and Kellerman? What were the allies forced to do? What was the fate of 
their armies ? 



241 

Assembly had already summoned the emigrants to return ; the 
Legislative Assembly repeated the summons, menacing them with 
severe penalties. It likewise threatened the priests who declined to 
take the oath upon the constitution, with the loss of their salary, and 
imprisonment, if they caused revolts. The king refused his appro- 
bation to both decrees, and only suffered unsworn priests in his 
presence. Embittered by this resistance, the suburbs of Paris rose 
in revolt. When the proclamation of the duke of Brunswick 
appeared, the country was declared to be in danger, and the insur- 
rection began again (Aug. lo, 1792 A. D.) The king sought shelter 
in the hall of the Legislative Assembly, the royal palace having been 
taken by storm, and most of the Swiss guards, composed of about 
1,000 men, were massacred. Several thousands of the people were 
also killed. The Assembly then declared Louis suspended, for the 
reason that it was impossible to save Hberty and the country in the 
midst of so many domestic and foreign dangers, as long as the 
executive power was in the hands of a ruler who almost openly 
conspired with the enemies of the people. A National Convent 
ought to govern in the name of the sovereign people. The nation 
and the army consented to this resolution. Lafayette, summoning 
his army to protect the king and the constitution, was forsaken by 
the troops and compelled to flee ; he was seized by the Austrians 
and kept in captivity for several years, till Napoleon released him. 

The nearer the enemies advanced, the more infuriate grew the 
inhabitants of the capital. The king and his family were imprisoned 
in the Temple ; several priests who had refused to take the oath, and 
the followers of the king who had fought against the people were 
horribly killed, and many citizens proscribed. The Legislative 
Assembly had lost its power ; the National Convent took its place 
(the 2ist of September). 

The club of the Jacobins (sans-culottes)* was much to be 
blamed for these atrocious deeds. It was so called from the con- 
vent where its members assembled. It had been founded by 

What decrees did the king refuse to confirm? What of the suburbs of 
Paris ? When did the insurrection begin again ? Mention the sad consequences 
of it. Who was then suspended ? Why ? Who should govern instead of the 
king ? What accident happened to Lafayette ? Who released him ? Who was 
imprisoned in the Temple ? What of the refractory priests and the followers of the 
king ? What body politique took the place of the Legislative ? What club was 
much to be blamed for the atrocities committed ? 

* The nick-name sans-culottes (without breeches) was first given by the court party to the 
poorest class of people ; afterwards it meant an extreme republican, a Jacobin. 
(16) 



242 

patriotic deputies, in order to oppose the monarchic club, and 
became the leader of many similar societies in France ; but immoral 
and blood-thirsty men later joined it and corrupted its original 
spirit. Marat, Danton and Robespierre were among the most 
furious Jacobins. 

1 103. National Convent. Execution of Louis XVI. 
First Coalition War. Civil "War. Reign of Terror. 

The Convent, at its first session, abolished the royal dignity and 
declared France a republic. The party of the Mountainists, so 
called because they occupied the highest seats in the convention, 
assisted by the Jacobins, soon demanded also the life of the king. 
The Convent, mainly relying on secret papers which were discov- 
ered in an iron safe behind a wall of the Tuileries, accused Louis 
of having conspired against the liberty and security of the State, 
and condemned him to death by a majority of only 26 votes 
out of 721, and the sentence was promptly executed (the 21st of 
January, 1793 A. D.)* 

The committee of public welfare, composed of nine members, 
then assumed a kind of dictatorship ; a second committee ought to 
take care of the inner safety of the realm. After the execution of 
the king, the fall of the Girondists followed. They constituted the 
moderate party of the Convent who had not desired the death of 
the king, and were called so from the department of Gironde, by 
which their ablest members had been elected. The pressure of 
domestic and foreign perils rendered the nation not only blood- 
thirsty and even partly insane, but also daring, despising dangers 
and death. Immediately after the frontiers had been freed, her 
armies, led by the brave Generals Custine and Dumouriez, invaded 
the territories of the enemies, and conquered Savoy, Belgium, and 
several fortresses in Germany. The nations, tired of their sover- 
eigns, received them everywhere with joy. But the republic, intoxi- 

What was the origin of its name ? Wliat was its spirit at first ? Name some 
of its most furious members. § 103. What did the Convent decree at its first 
session? Explain the name "Mountainists." Whose life did they demand? 
Relying on what papers ? Was Louis condemned to death by a gi-eat majority of 
votes ? How did Thomas Paine vote ? When was the king executed ? What 
two committees were established ? Whose fall followed then ? Explain the 
name "Girondist." What of the warfai-e of the French nation? What coun- 
tries did it conquer ? 

* Thomas Paine, at that time a member of the Convent, did not vote for the death of the king. 



243 

•cated by victory, forgot its former moderation, craved for conquests, 
challenged the sovereigns and the nobility of all countries, and 
offered her alliance to all nations. In this way France declared war 
against Spain, Holland and England (in February and March, 1793 
A. D.) Victory again left her banners. An attack of Holland was 
a failure. The Netherlands also were again lost. Sardinia, too, 
was partly lost. Two Spanish armies and a Portuguese auxiliary 
corps invaded France. Other enemies took the frontier fortresses 
of the country. Finally, the flame of civil war burst out and 
spread everywhere within the country. The inhabitants of La 
Vendee were fighting for the nobility and clergy against the armies 
of the republic, defeating them many times. The northern and 
southern departments rose against the Mountainists. Toulon sur- 
rendered, in order to escape their vengeance, together with immense 
stores and the largest fleet of the realm, to the EngUsh and Span- 
iards, and proclaimed the son of- Louis king. More than one-third 
of the nation waged open war against the Convent. 

The Convent, however, did not lose courage with so many ene- 
mies against it. The nation was summoned en masse ; while the 
younger citizens marched against the enemy, the rest prepared for 
cases of emergency. All France became one camp ; everywhere 
the alarm-bell was sounded ; everywhere arms were forged. Hun- 
dred thousands should, at all points, attack the enemy, and give bat- 
tle upon battle. Carnot, a man havmg the mind of the ancient 
republicans, was the soul of this new war system. The republic 
was declared to be for so long a time in a state of revolution till the 
foreign powers would acknowledge her independence, and a revo- 
lutionary government was established (December 4th), headed by 
the committee of the public welfare. All quaked before it ; afl its 
measures were adopted. Robespierre was its head. 

The government of the committee of welfare was terrible, but 
it saved France. The insurrection in the northern departments was 
rapidly suppressed. In La Vendee the war should be finished 
within twenty days; this was the order of the Convent. The pop- 

What was the republic craving for ? Against whom did it declare war ? What 
of Holland ? Of the Netherlands ? Of Sardinia? Who invaded France ? In 
what provinces did civil war break out ? What seaport surrendered ? What 
arrangements did the Conyent make ? What of the new military system ? Of 
Carnot ? Of the revolutionary government ? Who was the head of the com- 
mittee of public welfare ? How were the rebels brought to terms in the north- 
ern departments ? In La Vendee .'' 



244 

ulation all around was summoned ; fresh troops drew near and van- 
quished the mutineers, even before the time fixed. In fact, Bre- 
tagne now declared also for them, and England prepared a descent 
for their support. Eighty thousand new combatants replaced the 
killed, gained several victories, and already drew near to Paris ; the 
larger armies, however, speedily advanced upon them and struck 
the blow of perdition (December 12, 13); 20,000 dead royaUsts 
covered the battle-field. A column of troops, called " the infernal," 
passed through the country, destroying everything by fire, and the 
captives, in bands, were killed by swords, cannons, or in the waves 
of the Loire, into which they were plunged through the movable 
bottoms of ships. The southern provinces were also compelled to 
submit and feel the rage of the victors. A special revolutionary 
army, with the guillotine, passed through the whole country, mur- 
dering all who did not confess its principles. During eighteen 
months over a million people lost their lives by civil war ; as many 
were killed by the foreign wars. Then, by the guillotine, expired : 
Queen Marie Antoinette ; Elizabeth, the king's sister ; and manj^ 
other people of the nobility; the imprisoned Girondists, Bailly,. 
Lafayette's virtuous friend ; the Generals Custine, Westerman, etc. 
The unhappy son of Louis died in the Temple, in consequence of 
entire neglect and rough treatment (1795 A. D.) But the duke of 
Orleans, Danton, and other Mountainists, were also executed. 
Marat was assassinated by the young heroine, Charlotte Corday. 

The manners of the nation grew savage. A rude tone pre- 
vailed in the associations ; education and instruction were neglected ; 
academies and literary societies abolished; the monuments of art 
destroyed. Women mounted guard in the Convent. The Christian 
religion was also abrogated, and in its stead the Service of Reason, per- 
sonified by a beautiful female, with theatrical show, established. 

In the meantime, the armies of the republic annihilated also the 
foreign enemies. Two great victories, at Hondshouten and Mau- 
beuge, on the banks of the Sambre, drove the allies back from the 
northern frontier (Sept. 8th, 1793 A. D.) Next year, Pichegru and 

In Bretagne? Give an account of the infernal column; of the revolutionary 
army passing through the country. How many lives were lost during eigliteen 
months by civil war; how many in the foreign wars ? Give the names of some 
persons who were guillotined. What of the son of Louis XVI.? Of Marat ? 
What of the manners of the nation ? Of the Christian religion ? Of the cult of 
Reason ? What of the victories of the French at Hondshouten and Maubeuge ? 
What of Pichegru and Jourdan ? 



245 

Jourdan contended successfully. Belgium was once more con- 
quered; blow after blow was dealt upon the enemies, until they 
were everywhere compelled to retire over the Rhine. Pichegru, 
in the midst of winter, boldly passed over the frozen streams of 
Holland, and with a small army, which was in want of clothing and 
food, conquered the whole country in three weeks. He was favored 
by the people ; these hated their obtruded governor, who took to 
flight, and the power of the aristocrats was overthrown. The rep- 
resentatives of the people assembled, liberty-poles were set up, the 
people declared sovereign, and the country changed to a republic, 
■confederating with France (1795 A. D.) Still it was obliged to give 
up to the latter half of its army and part of its fleet. In Italy, too, 
the French republic won the victory (1794 A. D.), and here, also, 
the affection of the people made her conquests easier. Even 
greater was her success in Spain, where Dupommier gained the vic- 
tory, by the loss of his life, in a battle lasting three days (November 
17-20), and several fortresses were taken. Quaking, Spain con- 
cluded peace. Soon after this splendid success of the French arms 
the Terrorists were overthrown. 

§ 104. Downfall of the Reign of Terror. Directorial 

Government. The Coalition War Continued. 

Napoleon Bonaparte. 

The cult of Reason did not last long. It was derogated, on mo- 
tion of Robespierre, by the Convent, and the acknowledgment of a 
Supreme Being proclaimed (1794 A. D.) He also caused festivals 
to be appointed to Virtue, Justice and Friendship. Still he con- 
tinued his executions, thus contradicting those expressions of 
humanity. Finally, even the Convent got tired of his tyranny. 
When he would again proscribe a great number of his adversaries, 
the Convent took him prisoner; his followers, however, released 
him, but he was again seized, and though he had his jaw-bone frac- 
tured by a pistol-shot, he was dragged to the place of execution and 
beheaded. The same doom also befell his confidants, St. Just and 
Couthon, the general of the city-guard, the mayor of Paris, the 

Of Belgium? Of Pichegru's campaign in Holland? By whom was he 
favored ? How was its government changed ? What of Italy ? Of Dupom- 
mier in Spain? | 104. Did the cult of Reason last long? What festivals did 
Robespierre introduce? Was he, for all that, more humane? What of his end? 
Who had the same doom ? How did the spirit of the Convent become ? Whose 
dominion was at an end ? What did the royalists effect ? 



246 

president of the club of Jacobins, and one hundred councilors 
and judges. The spirit of the Convent grew more moderate, relig- 
ious persecutions ceased, and arts and sciences began to be again 
honored. True, the friends of the system of terror, aided b}^ some 
suburbs, yet excited several furious uproars, taking even the hall of 
the Convent (May, 1795); but they succumbed to the regular 
power of the Convent. Their leaders were partly executed, partly 
banished, and the dominion of the Jacobins was forever at an end. 

But forthwith the adherents of royalty became bolder again. 
They, through support from England and the emigrants, caused 
formidable insurrections in La Vendee and Paris; in the former 
place they proclaimed the brother of Louis XVI. king; in the latter, 
they besieged the Tuileries. They were vanquished in both places ; 
in Paris by Napoleon. The Convent then dissolved itself, and two 
chambers took its place, called the Council of the Old Ones and of 
the Five Hundred ; five directors should have the executive power. 

Since the downfall of the reign of terror, war was waged without 
energy; the armies of the republic suffered many defeats by the 
Austrian generals. At last Napoleon Bonaparte restored the splen- 
dor of the French arms. This greatest general of modern time 
was born in Ajaccio, on the Island of Corsica (1769 A. D.) and 
educated for the position of an officer in the military schools of 
Brienne and Paris, where he gained free admission. He liked 
best to study mathematics and the art of war. In ancient history 
he read the exploits of the Grecian and Roman heroes with enthu- 
siasm. He loved to be alone and avoided the merry plays of his 
school-mates. Besides, he was reserved and stubborn. When still 
a youth he was employed as an officer of artillery. He sided first 
with the republicans. At the siege of Toulon he commanded the 
artillery ; the Convent was indebted to him principally for the cap- 
ture of the fortress. 

This young man was appointed general-in-chief of the Italian 
army by the directory ( i 796 A. D.) The army was in want of money, 
clothing and provisions ; Napoleon pointed out to it the rich coun- 
tries of the enemies, where it would find abundance of supplies, led 

Who vanquished them in Paris ? What government followed after the disso- 
lution of the Convent ? How vi^as war waged now ? Who restored the splendor 
of the French arms ? Give some particulars of Napoleon's education. With 
what party did he side first ? What military service did he do in the siege of 
Toulon ? For what army was he appointed general-in-chief ? Give an account 
of his campaign. 



247 

it at once against them, and vanquished them in rapid succession in 
five battles. The king of Sardinia was compelled immediately to 
make peace, losing Savoy. After that Napoleon rushes in upon the 
Austrian army, passes, at the head of his troops, the bridge at T.odi 
in a rapid march, without minding the murderous fire of the ene- 
mies (May loth), conquers the whole of Lombardy, and enters 
Milan triumphantly ; only Mantua still resists. He besieges the 
fortress, destroys four armies which hasten to the rescue (the third 
in the gigantic battle at Arcole, November 15, 16, and 17), and 
compels the commander to surrender with 12,000 soldiers and 500 
cannons. The conquered lands obtained free constitutions, and 
formed the Cisalpine republic. 

While Napoleon was fighting with such admirable success in 
Italy, the Archduke Charles defeated the French in Germany, and 
forced them to retreat. France offered peace to the emperor ; but 
he rejected it, declaring that he disavowed the French republic. 
Consequently Napoleon advanced farther through Tyrol and Corin- 
thia, and in a quick, victorious course, approached the residence of 
the emperor. Now he accepted peace, which was made at Campo 
Formio (1797 A. D.); he lost Belgium and his Italian States. 
Besides, the pope was vanquished (1798 A. D.), and carried off into 
captivity, in which he died. Finally, the French government abol- 
ished the aristocratic dominion of the cities in Switzerland, and 
established an undivided republic. 

1 105. Napoleon's Expedition to Egypt. Second Coali- 
tion War. Battle at the Pyramids. Naval Com- 
bat at Abukir. Consular Government. 

Now Napoleon was sent with a select army to Egypt, in order to 
strike at the Indian possessions and commerce of England, and to 
undertake new conqi;ests for France. He took with him artisans of 
all kinds, a complete collection of philosophical and mathematical 
instruments, and about a hundred of the most illustrious scientific 
men of Frande, who should investigate the antiquities of the land. 



What was his success ? What exploit did he accomplish at Lodi ? What 
country did he conquer ? Give an account of the siege of Mantua. How many 
armies did he destroy ? What was the result ? What government did the Lom- 
bardy obtain ? Describe the continuation and the end of the campaign. What 
countries did the emperor Jose ? What of the pope and of Switzerland ? 
1 105. What was the next expedition of Napoleon ? What was the intention of 
France ? Who accompanied Napoleon ? 



248 

He proclaimed to the Arabian population, which formed the 
majority of the inhabitants, that he had come to protect their 
religion, to restore their rights and punish their usurpers, the Mame- 
lukes, a corps of horsemen of Circassian origin, who were engaged 
in the service of the Turkish Bey. Napoleon attacked and van- 
quished them at Raminieh and at the Pyramids (1798 A. D.) But 
Nelson, the English admiral, defeated the French fleet in the bay of 
Abukir. Nine vessels of the line were taken. The admiral's ship 
blew up with one thousand men, and one was burned by the French 
themselves. Napoleon himself besieged Jean d'Acre in Syria with- 
out success. The French arms being unlucky in Europe also, and 
the Directory having lost all authority and consideration, he returned 
to France (1799 A. D.) Egypt yielded again to the government of 
the Porte (1801 A. D.) 

While Napoleon was fighting in Egypt, the second coalition war 
* in Europe had opened against France (1799 A. D.) England, Aus- 
tria, Russia, Portugal, Naples, the pope and the Turkish sultan were 
combating the republic. At the commencement of the war the 
republicans fought successfully. Naples and Tuscany were con- 
quered, so that France possessed the whole of Italy. But her 
dominion did not last long. The Austrians and Russians, soon after, 
conquered the Lombardy. The impetuous Suwarrow was the 
commander of the latter. Tuscany, Naples, and the States of the 
Church were lost again. In Germany Archduke Charles vanquished 
the French at Ostrach and Stockach. But at last Massena totally 
defeated Suwarrow at Ziirich in Switzerland, and saved France by 
his victory. Paul, the dejected emperor of Russia, recalled his 
troops. 

When Napoleon again arrived in France, the hopes of all parties 
were turned towards him. He received the command of the troops 
stationed in Paris and near by, but abused his power, causing those 
directors who would not voluntarily abdicate to be taken prisoners. 
Though he had again done allegiance to the constitution by oath, 
accompanied by grenadiers he entered the council of the five 

For what purpose ? What did he proclaim to the Arabian population ? 
Who were the Mamelukes ? Where did Napoleon vanquish them ? Who de- 
feated the French fleet ? Where ? Give the circumstances of the battle. 
What powers iormed the second coalition? W^here was the French republic first 
successful ? What countries did it then lose ? Who was the Russian com- 
mander ? By whom was he defeated ? Who vanquished the French in Ger- 
many ? What command did Napoleon receive after his return from Egypt ? 
How did he abuse his power ? Against the directory ? Against the five hundred ? 



249 

laundred in order to dissolve them. Checked by their threats, he 
appealed to the assistance of the troops, with their help expelled 
the members of the council, and caused, instead of the Directory, 
three consuls to be appointed, of whom the first should possess the 
highest power. He himself became first consul. In this way the 
republic was transformed into a military monarchy. 

The war against Austria and England continued. Napoleon 
secretly, with wonderful boldness, led an army over the Great St. 
Bernhard, and gave a bloody battle to the Austrians at Marengo, in 
Sardinia, in which Desaix, his friend, gained the almost lost victory 
by his heroic death (1800 A. D.) The entire command of Italy 
was given again to France. In Germany Moreau also fought with 
good success. He gained the victory at Hohenlinden, in Bavaria, 
and invaded Austria. The emperor had to conclude the peace of 
Luneville, and to cede the archdukedom of Tuscany (1801 A. D.) 
■Germany lost all provinces of the left bank of the Rhine. Mean- 
while a union of the northern powers was formed against England. 
Nelson defeated the Danish fleet at Copenhagen (1801 A. D.) ; but 
too weak to continue the war, it also agreed to the general peace at 
Campo Formio (1802 A. D.) It was compelled to surrender almost 
all the conquests it had made. 

§ 106. French Empire. Third CoaUtion War. Prusso- 

Russian War. Battles at Austerlitz, Jena and 

Auerstadt, Eilau and Friedland. The 

Continental System. 

Napoleon now directed his efforts to the pacification and im- 
provement of France ; by a general amnesty 100,000 emigrants were 
enabled to return ; a system of public instruction was estabUshed, 
and the collection of the heterogeneous laws of the monarchy and 
the republic, into one consistent whole, under the title of " Code Na- 
poleon," was commenced— an undertaking which has covered the 
name of Napoleon with glory. Magnificent roads, Hke those over 
the Alps, canals, bridges, and improvements of all kinds, are to the 

What magistrates did lie cause to be appointed ? Who became first consul ? 
At what place in Sardinia did he vanquish the Austrians ? By whose death did 
he gain the victory? What French general was victorious in Germany ? What 
countries did Austria and Germany lose ? What success did England have in 
the contest against the northern powers ? § 106. What improvements did 
Napoleon make? With regard to public instruction? To legislation? To 
commerce ? 



250 

present day eloquent memorials of Napoleon's restless activity. But 
he pursued also his ambitious plans. He set narrow bounds to the 
liberty of the press, created a crafty police, occupied the senate 
with his followers, subjected the State Church again to the pope, 
and caused himself to be appointed consul for life. Not satisfied 
with this success, he contrived to have himself elected emperor of 
France (1804 A. D.) He re-established nobility and a pompous 
court. In the Lombardy also he caused himself to be appointed 
king (1805 A. D.), and designated his step-son, Eugene, viceroy. 
He gave a regent to the republic of Batavia (Holland), and obliged 
Switzerland to furnish troops every year for his murderous wars. 
Two conspiracies against his life were failures (1800 and 1804 A. D.) 
In the first they tried to kill him by a machine, called the infernaL 
He ordered the members of the second conspiracy partly to be 
executed, e. g., Pichegru, partly to be banished, like Moreau. Prince 
Enghien, a descendant of the old dynasty, though living in Germany, 
was also seized and shot, because he was accused of having been an 
accomplice in the conspiracy. 

Hardly a year had elapsed since the conclusion of peace, when 
England, allied with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples re-com- 
menced war against France. Napoleon rapidl}' penetrated Ger- 
many with a well-armed host, commanded by the excellent Generals 
Bernadotte, Davoust, Soult, Lannes, Ney and Murat, compelled the 
sovereigns of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Baden to confederate with 
him, and captured an Austrian army of 33,000 men in Ulm. Vienna 
Avas compelled to open her gates to him. At Austerlitz, in Moravia, 
he fought his greatest battle, in which he entirely defeated the Aus- 
trians and Russians, taking 18,000 prisoners and 100 cannons. 
30,000 dead soldiers covered the battle-field. Emperor Francis then 
concluded the peace of Presburg, acknowledging Napoleon as ruler 
of Italy, and ceding Tyrol to Bavaria. 

Naples and Holland also were compelled to submit to Napoleon 
(1806 A. D.) and accept of him his brothers Joseph and Louis as 
kings. To his brother-in-law, Murat, he gave the dukedom Cleves- 
Berg. Finally he, with the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and 

How did he show his ambition ? When was he elected emperor ? In what 
country was he appointed king ? Mention some points of the two conspiracies. 
What powers participated in the third coalition ? Give the names of some ex- 
cellent genei-als of Napoleon. What happened in Ulm ? What was the result 
of the battle at Austerlitz ? Who became king of Naples ? Of Holland ? With 
what sovereigns did Napoleon form the confederation of the Rhine ? 



251 

with some other princes, formed the confederation of the Rhine, 
inducing them to nominate him as its protector. Francis II. then 
resigned the imperial dignity of Germany. 

While France contended successfully by land, in the contest by 
sea it lost her foreign possessions, and Nelson, at the Cape of Tra- 
falgar, in Spain, destroyed the large French and Spanish fleet; the 
Spanish admiral was killed, and the French captured. Still the hero 
of the battle also died immediately after it from a serious wound he 
had received during the combat (1805 A. D.) 

Next year Frederic WiUiam III., king of Prussia, declared war 
against France. England, Russia and Saxony were his allies. The 
Prussians, divided into two armies, were routed the same day (14th 
of October, 1806 A. D.), at Jena and Auerstadt, with terrible slaugh- 
ter. • Their generals {e. g., Bliicher) and their fortresses surrendered 
one after another, and Berlin opened her gates to the victor. In a 
few weeks Napoleon- conquered the largest part of the Prussian 
monarchy. Prussian Poland joined him. He summoned its 
inhabitants to restore their liberty, and they hastened joyfully to 
arras. Then he attacked the Russians, too. In the sanguinary 
battle at Eilau he fought with dubious success (1807 A. D.) But on 
the 14th of June he vanquished both enemies at Friedland. They 
demanded peace, which was concluded in Tilsit. Alexander, 
emperor of Russia, lost nothing, but Prussia was diminished by half. 
Napoleon, from a part of the conquered countries, formed the king- 
dom of Westphalia, bestowing it on his brother Jerome, and left 
Prussian Poland to his new ally, the king of Saxony. In order to 
weaken the power of England, he established the continental sys- 
tem, prohibiting by it all commerce in Europe with that country, 
and causing the English merchandise to be burned. 

|107. Spanish, Austrian and Russian War. Burning 

of Moscow. 

As the king of Portugal did not renounce his alHance with Eng- 
land, Napoleon invaded his land and conquered it. The king fled 

Who destroyed the French and Spanish fleet ? Where ? What was the end 
of the hero ? Give an account of the Prussian war. Where were the Prussian 
armies routed ? What rapid success did Napoleon have ? What country joined 
him ? Where did he fight the Russians ? With what success ? What did Prus- 
sia lose? On whom did Napoleon bestow the kingdom of Westphalia? On 
whom Prussian Poland? Explain the signification of the continental system. 
I 107. What of Portugal ? 



252 

to Brazil. The emperor also enticed the weak-minded king of Spain 
to come to France, induced him, by cunning intrigues, to confer the 
crown upon him and his family, and then appointed his brother 
Joseph king of that land. Naples was left to Murat. But the 
Spanish nation, hating the new government, and having England's 
support, opposed it so obstinately that Joseph was obliged to with- 
draw from Madrid. Portugal also became again free. Napoleon 
then took the field in Spain himself with immense forces, and, with 
arms in hand, brought his brother back. He abolished the inquisi- 
tional tribunal and the feudal law, and diminished the number of con- 
vents ; but the people, incited by the clergymen and the aristocrats, 
refused to accept these salutary reforms from him. Joseph, irritated 
by this resistance, abolished all orders of monks and mendicant 
friars. As the Austrian war began (1809 A. D.), and Napoleon, 
therefore, was obliged to quit the country, his generals were again 
vanquished. Wellesley Wellington, the English general, defeated 
them several times during the Russian campaign, and Spain was 
forever released from the foreign dominion. The Cortes (States- 
General) gave the land a liberal constitution (1812 A. D.) 

When Emperor Francis saw the resistance of the Spanish 
nation, he also took up arms once more against Napoleon. But 
the latter, aided by the confederation of the Rhine, by Russia, Italy 
and other powers, overwhelmed the Austrian armies in a few days, 
being especially victorious in the battle at Ratisbon, and entered 
Vienna some weeks after the commencement of the war. Still, he 
was defeated at Aspern, near Vienna (the 21st of May), and even 
in the battle of Wagram (the 5th and 6th of July), in which' he 
gained the victory, he had more dead and wounded than the ene- 
mies. Emperor Francis hereafter concluded the peace of Vienna, 
by which he had to surrender a territory containing three and a half 
millions of inhabitants. After this Napoleon caused himself to be 
■divorced from his wife, the beloved and highly respected Empress 
Josephine, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor 
Francis (18 10 A. D.) His intention was, by this marriage, to per- 
manendy establish his power, but it was soon baffled by the events 

Of Spain ? How did Napoleon get possession of the latter country? 
Whom did he appoint king ? Who opposed Joseph ? Give the particulars of 
the Spanish war. Who gave to the land a liberal constitution ? ' Who took up 
arms against Napoleon once more ? Which English general defeated the French 
army ? What of the battles of Aspern and Wagram ? What was the loss of 
Francis ? What of the empresses Josephine and Maria Louisa of Austria ? 



253 

of war. He also incorporated Holland and the German maritime 
countries from the Ems to the mouth of the Elbe with the French 
empire. At last he seized the possessions of the duke of Olden- 
burg, Alexander's brother-in-law. 

As he hereby drew nearer and nearer to Russia, Alexander com- 
plained against him for several reasons, <?. g., for having spoiled the 
land of his brother-in-law, and armed for the contest. Napoleon did 
the same. Each one collected half a ' million warriors. Napoleon 
was aided by the confederation of the Rhine, by Austria, Prussia, 
Denmark, Holland, Italy, Switzerland and Poland. At the diet of 
Warsaw he caused the restoration of the old kingdom of Poland to 
be proclaimed, in order (as he said) to set bounds to the aggran- 
dizement of the Russian power, which threatened to overwhelm 
Europe, and declared the beginning of the second war of Poland 
(1812 A. D.) The Russian armies retired, and laying the country 
waste, left nothing behind but a barren desert. Not till they reached 
Borodino (at the Moskwa) did they keep their ground, in order to 
defend the access to the capital of the realm; but they were 
defeated, the loss on both sides amounting in the aggregate to- 
pe, 000 in killed and wounded. Napoleon entered Moscow (14th 
*of September). He was surprised to find the city empty and silent, 
but soon columns of smoke and flames ascended from all sides. A 
violent hurricane arose, setting the whole city into a blaze of fire 
and reducing it to rubbish and ruins. Governor Rostopshin had 
ordered the combustion, and the few inhabitants who had remain ed 
in the city executed it with the aid of the released criminals. 
Napoleon, beguiled by a false show of peace made by Alexander, 
still remained in Moscow thirty-four days. Meanwhile winter set 
in and he was compelled to begin his retreat, himself, in the midst 
of his still faithful guards, leading the advance, and the heroic 
Ney bringing up the rear. But what a retreat ! Want of victuals,, 
the enemies hurrying on from all sides, and most the hard frosts 
setting in earlier than usual and showing 27 degrees Reaumur below 
zero, visibly weakened his army. The sheltering clothes were torn 

What of Holland and Oldenburg ? Who complained against Napoleon ?■ 
How many soldiers did he and Alexander collect ? Who were the allies of 
Napoleon ? What reason did he give for the war ? Give an account of his cam- 
paign. In what manner did the Russians wage war ? What of the battle at the 
Moskwa? Narrate the burning of Moscow. What stratagem of Alexander 
retarded Napoleon's retreat? Give an account of the retreat. What general 
brought up the rear ? What incidents destroyed the army ? 



254 

from the bodies of the dyhig men, the unfortunate stragglers desir- 
ing to warm themselves at the watch-fires were pushed back, and 
the corpses of fallen horses and the remainder of half-burned men 
disputed. Men and beasts fell dead in troops. The road was cov- 
ered with corpses. In Wilna alone 50,000 were found. Around 
Moskwa and Mohelew 250,000 were burned by the Russians. The 
route of the rear guard of the army was literally choked up by the 
icy mounds of the dead. A large number of Cossacks, hovering 
constantly around the wearied columns, wore away their numbers. 
Especially great was Napoleon's loss in the days of crossing the 
Beresina; the banks of the river were soon covered with corpses. 
The bridges broke down, and 8,000 men perished in the waves. 
The army dissolved in wild flight, and when hunger, cold, and the 
lances of the Cossacks had destroyed thousands more, its feeble 
remnant, 20,000 men, without horses, cannons and wagons, arrived 
again at the Niemen. 

•I 108. Fourth Coalition War. Battle at Leipsic. Restora- 
tion of the Bourbons. Congress of Vienna. Ger- 
man Confederation. Battle at Waterloo. 
Napoleon Banished to Elba, and 
Captive in St. Helena. The 
Holy Alliance. 

Napoleon was forsaken, after this campaign, by most of his 
allies, even by his father- and brother-in-law ; the last decisive con- 
test began (1813 A. D.) He yet defeated his enemies, amounting 
to a million of combatants, several times, principally at Llitzen, 
Bautzen and Dresden, where also Moreau fell, fighting in the Rus- 
sian army against his country ; but he lost the battles at Dennewitz, 
Gross-Beeren, etc., and was finally completely vanquished in the 
great battle of nations at Leipsic (October 16-19). The Saxons 
left him here in the midst of the combat. He suffered a loss of 
80,000 men. He then hurried back to France, the confederates 
following and invading France from all sides. Even now he still 
defeated them several times, most successfully at Brienne ; nay, he 
compelled them to retreat ; but while he moved towards the Rhine 

What of the struggle of starving and dying soldiers ? Of Wilna ? Of the 
environs of the Moskwa and Mohelew ? Of the route of the rear-guard ? Of 
the Cossacks? Where was Napoleon's loss especially great? How many men 
arrived again at the Niemen ? g 108. Who then left Napoleon ? Who gained 
the battles at Liitzen, Bautzen, Dresden, Dennewitz, Gross-Beeren ? In what 
great battle was Napoleon completely defeated ? What was his loss ? What 
success had he in France ? 



255 

with the intention of drawing them also there, they advanced to 
Paris. Mary Louisa, upon whom he had conferred the regency, 
took to flight, and the grandees desponded ; the city was taken by 
storm (March 30, 18 14). The victors now pubhcly declared their 
resolution, which they had taken long ago, to restore the Bourbons. 
The new government, at whose head the cunning Talleyrand was 
placed, deposed Napoleon, and the venal senate transferred the 
crown to the Count of Provence, who forthwith began to rule under 
the name of Louis XVIIL, giving France a new constitution. Accord- 
ing to it, the king alone ought to exercise the executive power and 
partake in the legislative with the chambers of the peers and dele- 
gates. Liberty of conscience and of the press was also expressed 
in it. Napoleon received the island of Elba and a pension, the 
island being also his place of exile. He departed there; his wife 
and son he did not meet again. After this, general peace was 
brought about in Paris, according to which France was limited to 
her boundaries of the year 1792, and a general congress took place 
in Vienna. 

But at this congress the interests of the sovereigns were alone 
considered. The rights and desires of the nations were not remem- 
bered, though they had done the greatest share for the deliver- 
ance of Europe, and the rulers were to them indebted for the pres- 
ervation of their crowns. Austria took the Lombardy and Venice ; 
Prussia, almost half the kingdom of Saxony, together with several 
provinces on the Rhine; Russia, the greater part of Poland, with the 
title of a kingdom. England retained several important conquests 
in the East and West Indies ; the Ionian Islands, as a republic, were 
put under her protection. The repubhc of Belgium was united 
with Holland. Switzerland was recognized as a neutral confeder- 
ation. Lastly, the infamous slave-trade, at least, was abolished. 
The pope protested, as usual, also against the decrees of this con- 
gress! The German Confederation was also formed there. The 
German sovereigns concluded it for the purpose of conserving the 
domestic and foreign security of their lands. In future no more 
wars should be waged against each other ; a diet should conduct the 

What of Mary Louisa ? Of Paris ? What did the victors declare ? Who 
was at the head of the new government ? Who was appointed king? Give the 
substance of the new constitution. What island did Napoleon receive ? How 
were the boundaries of France limited? What of the congress in Vienna? 
What countries did Austria take ? Prussia ? Russia ? England ? What trade 
was abolished? What was the tenor of the German confederation? 



256 

general affairs ; the confederate States obtain States-General ; and 
the liberty of commerce and of the press enlarged. Frankfort, 
Liibeck, Bremen and Hamburg were declared free cities. 

During the congress Napoleon quitted Elba and landed in 
France (March ist, 1815); the people and the army received him 
with exultation ; he took possession of the throne without blood- 
shed. He declared to the terrified monarchs that in future he 
would no more disturb the peace of Europe, but devote himself 
only to the welfare of France ; but, mistrusting his promises, they 
proscribed him, and sent their armies against him for a final contest. 
About one and a half million of enemies poured into France. 
Murat, who had again embraced the party of his brother-in-law,, 
was first vanquished, and later captured and shot. Napoleon,, 
again commanding 220,000 veterans, vanquished the Prussians at 
Ligny, but was defeated at Waterloo (June i8th). He in vain 
hurled column after column upon the British lines led by Welling- 
ton; they withstood his assaults, and even his renowned guards. 
In the evening, Bliicher coming up with the Prussians, completed 
the rout of his army. Paris was captured the second time ; Napo- 
leon had ruled only 100 days. He resigned the crown in favor of 
his son. Napoleon II., and was wiUing to serve as a general among 
the French troops. The government also refused this demand, and 
ordered him to quit Paris. He tried in vain to escape to America ;, 
the Enghsh watched all seaports. He then accepted the offer of 
the English captain, Maitland, to receive him on board of his man- 
of-war, assuring him to be ordered to do so by his government, and 
to carry him to England, if this were acceptable to him. Napoleon 
declared it to be his intention to give himself up to the protection of 
the English laws, and to live for the future in England as a private 
man. But the high sovereigns considered him their prisoner, and 
caused him to be carried to St. Helena (August 7th). Only a few 
faithful friends and servants accompanied him to his prison of rocks. 
He lived there several years under the odious guardianship of the 
English, and finally died, after manifold afflictions of body and 

When did Napoleon leave Elba ? How was he received in France ? What 
did he declare to the monarchs ? Did they trust him ? What of the last con- 
test ? Where did he vanquish the Prussians ? Where was he at last defeated ? 
By whom ? What of Paris ? To whom did he resign the crown ? Did the 
government comply with his demand ? To what country did he attempt to go ? 
What was the offer of Captain Maitland ? What did Napoleon declare to him ? 
What did the sovereigns consider him ? Where was he carried to ? Under 
whose inspection did he live in St. Helena ? When did he die ? 



257 

mind (1821 A. D.) His remains, in later times, were brought back 
to France and interred in the most solemn manner. France was 
reduced to the frontiers it had before the revolution, and had to pay 
twenty-eight milHon pounds sterhng for the expenses of the last 
war, and to maintain a hostile army for five years, which should 
remain as a garrison within its borders. Marshal Ney was executed 
for high treason, in favoring Napoleon's return from Elba, though 
protection had been guaranteed him by the capitulation of Paris. 
The monarchs of Austria, Prussia and Russia then formed an alli- 
ance, called by them the " Holy " one, by which they bound them- 
selves, "in conformity with the principles of Holy Scripture," to 
lend each other every aid and succor in case of repeated commo- 
tions of the nations. Most of the continental powers soon acceded 
to this treaty. 

B. PAETIOULAR HISTORY OF SOME STATES. 



§ 109. Switzerland. Austria. England. 

The principles of the French revolution also excited in Switzer- 
land the most animated sympathy. The discontentment with the 
aristocratic governments grew general, and the subjects of the 
cities wanted to be free. The province of Vaud finally called for the 
assistance of France. A French army made its appearance, and 
took Berne after short resistance (1798 A. D.) The ancient Swiss 
confederation was dissolved, and the whole country formed into one 
republic, in which all inhabitants should have equal rights. The 
forest cantons, after a short and bloody struggle, were also com- 
pelled to accept the new constitution. When (in 1803) civil war was 
imminent, Napoleon divided the repubUc again into several cantons. 
Switzerland was obliged to furnish him an auxiliary corps of 1 8,000 
men, and to replenish it annually by new troops. By the efforts of 
the patriotic councilor', Esher of Ziirich, the Linth canal was con- 
structed (1807-1819 A. D.), and, in the following period, a confed- 
erate military school founded. 

Since the death of Joseph H. the nobility, the clergy and the 
civil officers in Austria domineered again. Francis II. committed 

What of his remains ? To what frontiers was France reduced? To what 
other charges had she to submit ? What was the fate of King Murat and of 
General Ney ? Give the essence of the " Holy Alliance " of the great powers. 
I 109. How were the aristocratic governments of Switzerland changed ? What 
classes of society did again domineer under Francis II. ? 

(17) 



258 

himself to the direction of the persons surrounding him. He abro- 
gated the hberty of the press. Prohibited books, even in hbraries, 
were confiscated by the government after the death of their proprie- 
tors. The secret poUce acquired a terrible power. It had its spies 
among the most reprobate class of the people, and even amongst 
the priests. Commerce was hindered, the peasant charged with 
heavy ground-rents, and the number of taxes continually increased. 
This mode of government reduced the State to poverty, and caused 
a heavy amount of pubHc debts. As Napoleon was crowned 
emperor, Francis also assumed the title of Emperor of Austria 
(1804 A. D.) 

The English nation also desired enlargement of liberty and 
reform of the old aristocratic constitution. The agitation increased, 
and in several fleets, as well as in Ireland, where the Catholics 
suffered heavy oppression, revolts took place (1797 and 1798 A. D.), 
but they were quelled by force, and the Irish parliament united 
with the English. The national debt, during the French wars, 
increased many hundred million pounds sterling. In the East 
Indies State after State was assailed and subdued. The warlike 
Mahrattas, in fact, vigorously resisted; but the British generals, 
especially Wellington, also destroyed their realm. 

i 110. Poland. Second, and Third Partition. Kosciusko. 

While Russia and Austria were at war with the Porte, Poland's 
patriots endeavored to deliver their country from the Russian 
dominion. Frederic William II. secretly promised them his assist-, 
ance. The diet, after having largely increased the army, demanded 
from Catharine II. that she should remove the Russian troops (1788 
A. D.) She obeyed. Hereafter Poland amended its constitution, 
according more freedom to the cities and granting religious tolera- 
tion. The miserable enactment that every individual of the nobiUty 
could annul the resolution of all the other members by his 
veto, was also annulled. But the peasantry, composing the 
main body of the nation, was hardly at all considered. The king 
of Prussia formed an alliance with the State, promising his support 

What of the liberty of the press ? Of the secret police ? Of commerce ? 
Of taxes ? Of the consequences of such a government ? What was the condi- 
tion of England ? What of her public debts ? Of her conquests in East India ? 
What general contributed most to them? § no. Who promised assistance to 
the Polanders? How did the diet amend the constitution? What class of the 
inhabitants was hardly at all considered ? Did the king of Prussia fulfill his 
promise ? 



259 

against every aggression of the foreign courts. But he acted merely 
from selfishness, demanding several fortresses from Poland, and when 
she would not cede them, he allied himself with Russia. Catharine 
ordered 100,000 Russians to march into Poland under the pretext of 
assisting those Polanders who protested against the new constitution 
(1792 A. D.) Prussia supported her, and King Stanislaus Augustus 
also sided with the traitors. True, the patriots, principally Kosci- 
usko, fought bravely ; but the king himself crippled their force, com- 
manding them to lay down their arms ; their troops were everywhere 
surrounded, disarmed and disbanded. The enemies plundered the 
land; the inhabitants, in flocks, were driven away. The victors 
then promulgated a second partition of the kingdom, pretending 
that the principles of the Jacobins had gained ground in that country 
(1793 A. D.) The cession to Russia, after a short resistance, was 
agreed to. But the demands of Prussia were obstinately rejected 
by the diet. The hall of the assembly, the throne, and the king were 
then surrounded with soldiers, cannons directed against the hall, 
and several deputies taken prisoners ; but when the votes should be 
taken, all kept silence during the whole night. The Russian general 
threatened them in vain ; at last when the day was breaking, the 
mareschal of the diet called three times the name of every deputy, 
and still no answer following, declared that this silence meant consent. 
In this manner, with the concurrence of Austria, Russia received 
yet three millions, Prussia more than one million of inhabitants. 

One year after this the patriots again endeavored to carry out the 
same project (1794 A. D.) Kosciusko, who Avas elected dictator, ' 
and other generals, gained some glorious victories. At the same 
time the inhabitants of Warsaw rose against the Russian garrison ; 
but the Prussian king drew near with an army and joined the Rus- 
sians. Kosciusko was defeated, and Warsaw besieged ; still the 
Polanders fought so bravely that the king had to withdraw. After 
him the destroyer Suwarrow stormed on ; Kosciusko was again de- 
feated, and together with his staff officers, taken prisoner. Suwarrow 
took Praga, the suburb of Warsaw, by assault ; 8,000 fighting Poland- 
Why not ? With whom did he ally ? How did the Polanders fight ? Who 
commanded them to lay down theii" arms ? Under what pretext was their land 
again divided ? Whose demands were rejected ? Give an account of the scene 
which took place during the night in the hall of the assembly. How many 
millions of inhabitants more did Russia and Prussia receive ? What efforts were 
renewed after one year ? Who was elected dictator ? How did he first succeed ? 
But by whom was he then defeated ? What of Suwarrow and Kosciusko ? Of 
Praga ? 



260 

ers were cut down, the children, women and old men slain, and the 
fugitives, in troops, flung into the Vistula. Upon the whole, 20,000 
Polanders lost their lives on this day (November 4th). The capital 
surrendered, and Austrian troops now marched into the land, which 
was divided again until it disappeared entirely from the list of the 
European States. Kosciusko, later liberated, went to Switzerland, 
where he died (181 7 A. D.) 

§111. United States of North America. "War Against 

England. Battle at Ne-w Orleans. Republic of 

Hayti. Toussaint Louverture. 

Since the deliverance of the United States of North America, 
the immigration to them became so considerable that the number 
of inhabitants, during sixty years, increased from three million to 
eighteen miUion. This unexampled rapid growth of the popula- 
tion of the United States was owing in part to the natural fer- 
tility of their soil, in part to the ease of settlement and of 
acquiring land in them and in part to their free constitutions. 
Millions there found that peace and liberty which was denied to 
them in Europe. By purchase, the inhabitants acquired Louisiana 
and Florida. They bought the former from France, Napoleon being 
then consul, for the sum of fifteen million dollars (1803 A. D.) 
This acquisition included the vast territory from the Gulf of Mex- 
ico north to the British possessions, and westward from the Missis- 
sippi to the Rocky Mountains and the Mexican possessions. Flor- 
ida was purchased from Spain for five million dollars (1819A. D.) 
Agriculture, commerce and manufactures were flourishing; sciences 
and arts also rose higher and higher ; morality was more generally 
diffused than ^n any other country on earth. At the head of the 
administration were excellent men, hke Washington, Adams, Jeffer- 
son, Madison and Monroe. 

During the wars which agitated Europe since the commence- 
ment of the French revolution, the United States, for twenty-three 
years, enjoyed perfect peace, which was only once, and for a 
short time, interrupted by a war waged against England (18 12-18 14 

Of the vanquished Polanders ? How many lost their lives ? What was the 
final doom of the land? What of Kosciusko? §111. How much did the 
number of inhabitants in the United States increase in sixty years ? For what 
reasons ? What two countries did they purchase ? From whom ? What was 
the extent of the territory of Louisiana ? What of agriculture ? Commerce ? 
Sciences and morality ? Who were presidents ? What were the causes of the 
war against England ? 



261 

A. D.) The conduct of England in harassing the commerce of 
the United States, and the impressment of seamen from American 
vessels, were the causes of the war. The British claimed that their 
vessels had a right to search American ships for the purpose of 
taking from them any seamen of English birth. The American 
government denied this right; and the more so, as several times 
American seamen were seized and forced into the British navy under 
the pretense that they were deserters. 

General Hull invaded Canada, but soon retreated and surren- 
.dered to the British General Brock, who, in another attack by a 
small body of regular troops, was slain. The American honor was 
well sustained at sea. The British frigate Guerriere struck to the 
frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, and the frigate Macedonian was 
captured by the frigate United States, Commodore Decatur. In 
several other naval actions the Americans Avere also victorious. 

General Winchester was defeated at Frenchtown, and by the 
treachery of the British commander. Colonel Proctor, 522 Ameri- 
cans were massacred by the savages after their surrender ; but York 
(now Toronto) surrendered to the Americans under General Dear- 
born. Fort George was taken by the Americans, and the British 
squadron on Lake Erie captured (1813 A. D.) by Commodore 
Perry, who told his triumph in a brief and modest dispatch, saying : 
" We have met the enemy, and they are ours." General Harrison 
defeated Proctor and the famous chief Tecumseh on the Thames. 
General Brown, aided by the militia, captured Fort Erie. This was 
the first of a brilliant series of victories obtained by the American 
Generals Porter, Scott, Ripley and Brown, on the Niagara frontier, 
over the troops who had fought under Wellington in Spain (18 14 
A. D.) Sir George Prevost, being reinforced by WeUington's veter- 
ans, at the head of 14,000 troops, invaded the American territory at 
Plattsburg, where were stationed about 4,000 American troops 
under General Macomb; The British flotilla on Lake Champlain 
reached Plattsburg Bay at the same time and attacked the Ameri- 
can squadron, commanded by Commodore Macdonough. A severe 

How long did it last ? What right did the English claim ? What of General 
Hull ? To what frigate did the British frigate Guerriere strike ? By what ship 
was the Macedoniaxi taken ? What of General Winchester and of the massacre 
of Americans by the savages ? Who captured the British squadron on Lake 
Erie ? Which British general and Indian chief were defeated by General Harri- 
son ? What other American generals gained victories on the Niagara frontier ? 
Which commodore destroyed a British flotilla in the harbor of Plattsburg ? 



262 

conflict ensued in the harbor of Plattsburg, which ended in the 
total destruction of the British flotilla. 

The British General Ross landed in Chesapeake Bay with 
5,000 troops, entered Washington (24th of August, 18 14), burning 
the capitol and other public buildings, and loaded with spoil, but 
also with disgrace, retreated to the shipping. Next he sailed to 
Baltimore, was killed in an action, and the army having tried in 
vam to enter the city, re-embarked. The victories on the sea in the 
South were about equally divided between the British and Ameri- 
cans. In December, 1814, a powerful British fleet, carrying over 
10,000 troops, approached New Orleans. In the city was General 
Jackson with about 6,000 men. He hastily built a parapet of earth 
and cotton-bales a few miles below the city, and planted his marks- 
men behind it. On the 8th of January, 1815, the British army, 
under Sir Edward Pakenham (pakn-am) advanced to storm the 
entrenchments. It met a terrible repulse. Jackson won a great 
victory, killing and wounding 2,000 of the British, with a loss of 
eight men killed and thirteen wounded. Pakenham was killed, and 
the British retreated to their ships. A treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States was signed, by which the former waived the 
" right of search." During this war the Creek and Seminole Indians 
commenced hostihties against the whites in Georgia and Alabama 
(1813 A. D.) General Jackson, meeting them in a number of bat- 
tles, speedily brought the war to an end. 

Soon after the conclusion of peace with England, Commodore 
Decatur, with a fleet, was sent against the Dey of Algiers, who had 
committed depredations on the American commerce. He captured 
two of the Algerine ships-of-war, and compelled the Dey to release 
all American prisoners, and to relinquish all claim to tribute in the 
future. 

By the French revolution the negroes of San Domingo (Hayti) 
were also incited to strive for independence. The island pertamed 
in part to France and in part to Spain. The whites wanted to 
become free from the mother country, but the negroes ought to re- 

What did General Ross do in Washington city? Where was he killed? 
Give an account of the battle at New Orleans. How many British and Ameri- 
cans participated in the battle ? Who were the generals ? How many British and 
Americans were killed ? What of the British general ? What right did Great 
Britain waive ? How did Commodore Decatur chastise the Dey of Algiers ? 
For what purpose did the negroes begin the contest against the whites in San 
Domingo ? 



263 

main in the bondage of slavery. Then the latter began the contest 
against their tyrants (1790 A. D.) At first the whites were victors. 
Finally, the National Convent abolished slavery (1794 A. D.) The 
colored people successfully resisted the Spaniards, Enghsh, and the 
domestic enemies. Their leader was the brave Toussaint Louver- 
ture. The Convent confirmed the liberty of the slaves, and the 
French Directory appointed Toussaint general-in- chief. But Napo- 
leon, resolved to subject them again, sent Leclerc, with a formidable 
army, against them (1802 A. D.) They resisted valiantly. The 
French General then concluded to overpower Toussaint by strata- 
gem. The latter was invited to a banquet, unawares seized and', 
carried to France, where Napoleon committed him to the jail, and 
let him perish therein. The colored men, enraged by the treason, 
again had recourse to arms, Dessalines and Christopher being their 
leaders. In a few months 20,000 enemies lost their lives by their 
arms and the yellow fever. New reinforcements from France 
arrived; new cruel deeds were committed. The black captives: 
were piled up in heaps and choked by vapors of sulphur. The 
negroes rose in a general insurrection, vanquished the French com- 
pletely, and compelled them to quit the island (1804 A. D.) Des- 
salines became governor. Through vengeance, he ordered the rest 
of the whites, numbering 5,000, to be killed, and then took the title 
of Emperor of Hayti. The negroes, in their contest for liberty, had 
lost 60,000 men. Dessalines was killed during a revolt (1806 A. 
D.) Then two chieftains divided the possession of the island. As 
Louis XVIII. attempted to reconquer it, both together opposed 
him. After their death France acknowledged the independence of 
the island for a certain compensation. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies : Napoleon— («) as boy and youth, (5) as general, {c) as con- 
sul, (d) as emperor, (e) his downfall and end. Louis XVI.— (a) calls the States- 
General, and {d) the National Assembly; (c) he will lock the hall of the Assem- 
bly, and (d) forcibly interfere with the Assembly (demolition of the Bastile) ; (e) 

Who then abolished slavery ? Who was the leader of the negroes? Who 
resolved to subject them again ? By what stratagem was Toussaint captured ? 
How was he treated by Napoleon ? How did the negroes take revenge ? Who 
were their leaders ? In what cruel manner were they killed when captured ? 
How was the war ended ? What cruel deed did Dessalines commit when he be- 
came governor ? What king attempted to reconquer Hayti ? Who opposed him ? 
On what condition did France acknowledge the independence of the island ? 



264 

he must go to Paris, (/) celebrates the federal festival, (g) takes to flight and is 
reduced, [/i) takes the oath upon the constitution, finally (/) he is dethroned and 
executed. Kosciusko's activity — (a) in the American war, (^) in the two Polish 
wars. The Russian campaign — [a) its causes, [i) march of Napoleon, [c) 
burning of Moscow, (d) retreat and destruction of the great army. Contests 
for liberty in Poland — First contest: i, its cause ; 2, its success ; 3, second par- 
tition of the land; 4, resistance of the diet. Second contest: i, victories of the 
patriots ; 2, combats and capture of Praga ; 3, result of the contest. Which are 
the most important articles of the constitution made by the National Assembly 
of France ? Which are the principal epochs of the French revolution ? When 
was the Bastile taken, and the bulk of the feudal services abolished ? When was 
the National Assembly in session ? When the National Convent ? When did 
the Directory govern ? When Napoleon as consul ? As emperor ? When was 
he dethroned ? When did he die ? How long was France a republic ? How 
long an empire ? When did the Austro-Prussian war begin ? When the Russian ? 
How many coalition wars were waged ? Who was the most eager enemy of 
France by sea ? Who on the continent ? When and where were great battles 
fought from the year 1796 to 1815 ? When did Napoleon return from Elba? 
When was the first, and when the second treaty of Paris concluded ? When was 
Poland the second and third time divided ? Mention remarkable events of the 
years 1189, 1589, 1689 and 1789. 



TENTH PERIOD. 



Fronq t\\e Second Parisian Treaty to i[\e Present Tirr[e. 

Restoratioq. Limitatioq of the Mor|archies, Last 

Revolutions, From 1815 to 1883 A, D, 



FIRST OHAPTER-POLITIOAL HISTORY. 



1. TIME OF EESTOEATION-1815-1830 A. D. 



^ 112. France. Germany. 

The new government of France was dependent on the foreign 
powers who had established it, on the emigrants who, after the 
restoration, had returned, and on their partisans among the nobiUty, 
the clergy and the people. The law of amnesty was precariously 
interpreted ; proscriptions and executions followed, and the van- 

§ 112. Upon whom was the French government depeadent ? How was the 
law of amnesty interpreted ? 



265 

quished party, though forming the majority, had to feel the ven- 
geance of the victors (of the white Jacobins). These obtained pos- 
session of the most important civil olfices, and squandered the pub- 
lic property. The independence of the tribunals was subverted, 
and the press was no longer permitted to publish the truth. Relig- 
ious liberty also was insulted. In the western and southern parts of the 
country the Protestants, the followers of Napoleon, and the friends 
of repubhcan principles were persecuted ; the enraged populace 
assailed and murdered them. The priests fostered the spirit of perse- 
cution. They regained the control of the instruction of the youth. 
Missionaries passed through the country and infatuated the bhnd 
multitude. New, dark orders sprung up, and the Jesuits returned 
under the name of " Fathers of Faith." Liberal members were 
turned out of the chambers. 

Louis XVIII. was followed by his brother Charles X. (count 
of Artois), who once had been at the head of the emigrants. He 
motioned, in the chamber, a plan to compensate the .emigrants. As 
the latter formed the majority, the plan was readily accepted, and 
the nation was obhged to pay them i,ooo million francs. As the 
pubhc press blamed his government, he re-established the censure. 
In order to divert the attention of the nation from the pubhc affairs, 
-war was declared against the Dey of Algiers. 

The German government, also, did little or nothing for the prog- 
ress of pubhc welfare. Even the insignificant amendments promised 
in the federal act were slowly and only in part enacted. The promises 
especially concerning the liberty of the press, of navigation and 
commerce, and of representative constitutions, were not fulfilled. 
Therefore the German people, deceived in their most sacred expec- 
tations by the supreme federal board, were directed to take recourse 
to their particular governments. However, several fulfilled their 
demands by- granting representative constitutions, e. g., the grand- 
dukes of Weimar, Baden and Hesse, and the kings of Bavaria and 
Wiirtemberg. In Prussia, only States Provincial were established ; in 
Austria nothing at all was changed. 

Who obtained the important offices ? How was justice dealt ? What of liberty 
of the press and conscience ? Who was persecuted ? Who fostered the spirit 
of persecution ? Who regained the control of public instruction ? What of mis- 
sionaries and Jesuits ? What sum did the nation have to pay to the emigrants ? 
What office did Charles X. re-establish ? What was the condition of Germany ? 
Especially concerning the liberty of the press and representative constitutions ? 
What sovereigns fulfilled the demands of the people? What of Austria? 



266 

This bad condition was growing still worse. In consequence of 
new congresses of Carlsbad and Vienna (1819 and 1820 A. D.) the 
German sovereigns oppressed the liberty of the press, deprived the 
universities of their legal judge, and appointed a central-commission 
in order to examine political movements, which they called dema- 
gogical stratagems. The spirit of pubHc liberty was suppressed. 
Those measures were rendered still more severe by the king of Prussia 
for his own lands. The order of nobility, which had been abro- 
gated during the French revolution, was re-established in the Rhine 
provinces. Emperor Francis recalled the Jesuits, suppressed some 
revolts of the Hungarian peasants, and dealt cruelly with the Car- 
bonaris of Italy (see §114). 

I 113. Spain and Portugal. 

Ferdinand VII., after his return (1814 A. D.), abolished the con- 
stitution of the Cortes, re-established the convents, the inquisition 
and the Jesuits, and governed tyrannically. At last the indignation 
grew so general that Riego again dared to promulgate the constitu- 
tion of the Cortes (1820 A. D.) The army and the nation con- 
sented. The inquisition, the torture and the convents were abolished, 
the Jesuits exiled, and liberty of the press declared. The king 
confirmed the constitution by oath. But it was soon attacked 
by its domestic and foreign enemies. To the former belonged the 
nobility and the clergy. The sovereigns assembled at the congress 
of Verona, viz., the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king 
of Prussia, demanded its abolition, and charged the king of France 
with the execution of their order. Accordingly, a French army of 
100,000 men, under the command of the Duke d'Angouleme, 
entered Spain (1823 A. D.); the majority of the noblesse and clergy 
joined it; the States-General was dissolved, and the victorious 
adversaries took cruel revenge upon the patriots. True, the king 
had declared general amnesty ; but when he arrived in the French 

What did the German sovereigns do in consequence of the congresses of 
Carlsbad and Vienna? Who took still more severe measures ? What Order did 
Francis II. recall ? How did he deal with the Carbonaris in Italy ? | 1 13. How 
did Ferdinand VII., after his return, govern in Spain? What was the conse- 
quence of his misrule ? What was abolished ? Who was exiled ? What of the 
liberty of the press ? What did the king confirm ? Who attacked the constitu- 
tion? Who demanded its abolition ? What army executed the demand? Who 
joined the army ? How were the patriots treated? Was amnesty maintained ? 



■ 267 

camp he annulled it. Riego was taken prisoner and executed. 
Only Mina defended himself bravely, and obtained an honorable 
retreat. Ferdinand proceeded so cruelly that even the French gen- 
eral recommended moderation to him. In several provinces the 
oppressed people rose in sedition. Thousands lost their lives 
in the combat; thousands upon the scaffold. After Ferdinand's 
death (1833 A. D.), his daughter, Isabella II., an infant only three 
years old, succeeded him, under the guardianship of her mother, 
Christina. But as the clergy declared itself for Don Carlos, 
brother of the late king, civil war broke out between the Carlists 
and Christines. Espartero waged war against the CarHsts and dis- 
armed them ; he became regent of the realm. But as he removed 
Christina, a new revolt broke out, obhging him to flee (1843 A. D.), 
and procuring the government again to Christina. During this 
time her daughter became of age, and took possession of the 
supreme power ; nevertheless, peace was not permanently restored. 

The adjoining kingdom of Portugal was the scene of similar 
commotions. The dissatisfied nation desired some Hberal changes 
in the laws of government. At length a revolution broke out, 
and a free constitution was soon after established (1821 A. D.) 
King John VI. confirmed it three times by oath ; the queen alone 
refused the oath, thereby causing, with her son Don Miguel, a, 
counter revolution. When the king, in spite of his threefold oath, 
restored the absolute monarchy, Don Miguel, not yet satisfied, 
effected a new insurrection with the intention of depriving his 
father of the throne and his life ; his nefarious scheme, however, 
miscarried, and he was banished. 

After John's death (1826 A. D.), his son, Don Pedro, emperor 
of Brazil, resigned his right to the crown of Portugal in favor of his 
infant daughter, Donna Maria, granting to Portugal at the same 
time a constitutional charter, and appointing his brother, Don 
Miguel, regent. Although the latter took an oath of fideUty to the 
charter, he soon began openly to aspire to the throne, and, aided by 

Who was executed ? What of Mina ? What of the oppressed people ? 
Who succeeded Ferdinand ? Who declared for Don Carlos ? What was the 
consequence? Who became regent? Whom did Espartero remove ? What was 
the result? What of Isabella? What of Portugal? What did the nation de- 
sire ? Who confirmed the constitution ? Who did not ? What did the queen 
and Don Miguel cause ? What did the king restore ? What did Don Miguel 
attempt ? With what result ? In whose favor did Don Pedro resign the crown 
of Portugal ? What did he grant to Portugal ? What of Don Miguel ? 



268 

the artifices of the priesthood, caused hitnself to be proclaimed sov- 
ereign of Portugal (1828 A. D.) He persecuted his opponents with 
despotic fury; put more than 25,000 men into prisons, and caused 
the. innocent to be executed every day. Don Pedro came from 
Brazil (1832 A. D.), enlisted mariners and soldiers in France and 
England, and fought valorously against his brother. The English 
admiral, Napier, vanquished Miguel's fleet at the Cape of St. Vincent 
(1833 A. D.) Lisbon declared herself for Pedro, proclaiming his 
daughter queen. He again entered his native town, visited the 
tomb of his father, and tearfully wrote these words on it : " One 
son has killed you; the other will revenge you." Don Miguel was 
expelled from the country, and obHged to renounce forever his 
claim to the throne. : Soon after Pedro died (1834 A. D.), and his 
daughter was placed upon the throne. Numerous conflicts for the 
constitution have taken place since that time. 

§ 114. Italy. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont. 

After the execution of Murat, Ferdinand IV. (since the union 
of Sicily with Naples called the First) returned to Naples, and the 
former political condition of the State was soon restored. The inner 
agitation, however, continued. It was especially increased by the 
Carbonaris (as they were called), who had the intention of uniting 
the Italian lands into one State. Encouraged by the example of 
the Spanish States- General, they effected an insurrection (1820 
A. D.) and proclaimed the Spanish constitution of 18 12. The 
king abdicated, conferred the government upon his son, and both 
confirmed the constitution by oath. But Emperor Francis, to 
whom Ferdinand had already secretly promised not to introduce 
any innovations which he disliked, and besides the monarchs of 
Prussia and Russia, invited the king to visit him at the congress of 
Laybach, and he went there under the pretext of saving the con- 
stitution he had already confirmed. But when he saw himself safe 
here, he declared that the high rulers had resolved to restore the 

Who favored his scheme ? How did he deal with his opponents ? Who 
fought against him ? What admiral vanquished his fleet? Who was proclaimed 
queen in Lisbon? What words did Don Pedro write on the tomb of his 
father ? What of Don Miguel ? ^ 1 14. What political condition of Naples was 
restored with Ferdinand IV. ? By what society was the agitation increased? 
What was the intention of the Carbonaris ? What did they effect and proclaim ? 
What of the king and his son ? Who invited the king to go to Laybach ? Why ? 
Did he go ? Under what pretext ? What did he then declare ? 



269 

former condition of the realm, and that his consent to the consti- 
tution had been extorted ; he also retracted his abdication. His 
declaration was followed by the arrival of an Austrian army (1821 
A. D.), which soon dispersed the native troops and entered Naples. 
The day of doom came; the patriots (and chiefly among them the 
Carbonans) were the sufferers. Some were executed; some were 
thrown into prison. Six tribunals of punishment were established ; 
the free press was aboUshed, and all the recently mtroduced 
reforms were declared null and void. The ignorant people rejoiced 
at the overthrow of the constitution. The king, notwithstanding 
the promised amnesty, continued urging, and abused his recovered 
power so much that even Emperor Francis advised him to be mod- 
erate. Priests and mercenary soldiers assisted him in his bloody 
work. The Austrian troops occupied the country for six years. 
The Order of Jesuits was also re-established (1833 A. D.) 

In Piedmont, the principal province of the Sardinian monarchy, 
the Jesuits were also admitted (since 18 15). The clergy and nobil- 
ity regained their former privileges, and civil liberty and enlighten- 
ment of the people were checked. Then the troops and students 
began an insurrection, in which even Charles Albert, heir apparent 
to the throne, participated. He was charged with the regency 
when the king abdicated. He granted the demanded constitution 
of the Spanish States- General. But those three monarchs in Lay- 
bach, induced by the representations of the Austrian minister, Met- 
ternich, resolved to overthrow it. Austrian troops marched in, 
vanquished the patriots, and occupied Turin and Alessandria. An 
unHmited monarchy, in its- severest form and with all the horrors of 
reaction, was again restored in Sardinia. 

§ 115. Greece. Contest A.gainst ithe Porte. Ypsilanti. 

Bozzaris. Fall of Missolonghi. Naval Battle 

at Navarino. Mehemed All. 

The Greeks, tired of the wearisome rehgious and political tyr- 
anny of the Porte, resolved to obtain their Hberty by fighting. The 

What did he retract .'' What followed his declaration ? What did the patriots 
suffer? What of the free press and of the new reforms ? Who rejoiced? Who 
advised the king to be moderate ? Who assisted him ? How long were the 
Austrian troops in the country ? What order was re-established ? In what 
other country also? What was the political condition of Piedmont? Who 
began an insurrection ? Who was charged with the regency ? What constitu- 
tion did he grant ? But who interfered ? Induced by whom ? Who marched into- 
the land ? What was restored ? §115. What did the Greeks resolve to obtain ? 



270 

Hetaria, a secret society composed of friends of the Greeks, sought 
to prepare for the great achievement. The most respectable Gre- 
cian inhabitants in Constantinople were initiated into the plan of 
deliverance. Prince Alexander Ypsilanti began the combat in Mol- 
davia. Sultan Mahmud II. took cruel vengeance on the Greeks in 
Constantinople and the neighboring provinces. He caused the 
noblest families to be killed, and the patriarch, together with several 
bishops, to be hung up on the doors of the temple. No order, no 
sex, no age was spared by his fury. The active forces of Ypsilanti 
did not suffice. The Greeks were defeated. The sacred band of 
the Hetarists, composed mostly of young students, who fought 
with the greatest heroism in the action at Dragashan, was almost 
annihilated. Yipsilanti, trusting in the promises of the Austrian 
government, went to Transylvania, from where he intended to 
return secretly to Greece, but he was seized and carried first to 
Munkatsch, and then to Theresienstadt, where he died (1828 A. D.) 

In the Morea and the islands the Greeks fought with better suc- 
cess. They took Tripolizza, the capital of the Morea, and their 
fleet gained a victory, principally by the valor of the Hydriots, at 
Mitylene. They became free in the first year of the war in that 
peninsula, in Hellas, and in a part of Thessaly. They formed a 
central government and a republican constitution {1822 A. D.) 

Europe beheld the heroic people with admiration. In many 
countries Philhellenic societies were formed, which collected money 
for them and engaged volunteers. Youths and men entered the 
Greek ranks as fellow-combatants. From England and the United 
States large contributions of clothing and provisions were forwarded 
to relieve the sufferings inflicted by wanton atrocities of the Turks, 
and, in this way, the nations proved that they had more Christian 
charity than the sovereigns who had formed the Holy Alliance, for 
the latter, following Metternich's advice, left the Greeks without 
any assistance ; the Grecian embassadors even were sent away 
from the congress in Verona without having obtained a hearing. 

In what manner ? What of the Pletaria? Who was initiated into the plan 
of delivery ? Who began the combat ? How did the sultan deal with the 
Greeks in Constantinople ? How did Ypsilanti succeed ? What of the Hetar- 
ists ? What was the fate of Ypsilanti? How did the Greeks fight in the 
Morea and the islands ? What city did they take ? What of their fleet ? Where 
did they become free ? What government and constitution did they form ? 
How did the Philhellenic societies assist the Greeks ? Who entered into their 
ranks? What of England and the United States? Of the Holy Alliance? 



271 

In the island of Scio the Mussehnans raged with the utmost 
cruelty. They burned the town and villages, and killed all inhabit- 
ants who could not save themselves by flight. The drunken der- 
vishes fastened thousands of skulls upon their lances and danced 
around them. In requital, the heroes Kanaris and Pipinos, rowing 
with two fire-ships into the midst of the fleet of the enemy and 
setting fire to the vessel of the Turkish admiral, and to another 
vessel of the line, blew up the former with more than 2,000 men on 
board. The other sunk in the billows (1822 A. D.) Many other 
Turkish ships were destroyed by the Grecian fire-ships. Misso- 
longhi, the rampart of the Morea, under the command of 
Marco Bozzaris, defended itself with heroic courage, and for a time 
became, free again. When Pasha Mustapha, with a large army, 
invaded the western part of Hellas, Bozzaris, devoted to liberty, pre- 
pared himself, like Leonidas, to die for his country. At midnight, 
with 222 Suliots, he broke into the Turkish camp. Other leaders, 
at the same time, attacked the enemy from other sides ; the slaughter 
became general, when a ball killed the hero. The Turks left their 
artillery and about 2,000 dead on the battle-ground (1823 A. D.) 
At this time the illustrious poet, Lord Byron, arrived in Greece and 
took an active part in aid of the independence of the country, 
but he died in the following year at Missolonghi. 

In the rocky island of Ipsara the horrors of Scio were repeated 
(1824 A. D.) 3,000 inhabitants had retired to the undermined castle, 
offering to surrender to the Turks. When the latter rushed in 
through the open doors, the former set fire to the mines, and 4,000 
enemies, together with the fugitives, were buried among the ruins of 
the castle. Admiral Miaulis avenged the dead by reconquering the 
island and vanquishing the combined Turkish and Egyptian fleets. 
A series of other victories by sea followed, and the campaign termi- 
nated gloriously for the Greeks. 

The fierce Ibrahim, son of the powerful Mehemed Ali, viceroy 
of Egypt, now also brought on the forces of Egypt. The fleets of 

What cruelties did the Turks commit in Scio ? Give particulars. What did 
Kanaris and Pipinos undertake ? With what kind of ships ? How was Misso- 
longhi defended ? Whose devotion caused his death when Pasha Mustapha in- 
vaded Hellas ? Give an account of the attack. What was the loss of the 
Turks ? What of Lord Byron ? How many Greeks sacrificed their lives in 
Ipsara ? In what way ? How many enemies met their death with them ? 
What of Admiral Miaulis ? Who brought on the forces of Egypt ? 



272 

the Christian powers allowed him to pass by unchecked, and land in 
the Morea. On his march he laid waste the peninsula and the 
main land. The captives were subjected to the most horrible tor- 
ments. They were killed, or for a still worse death, thrown into the 
pestilential mire of Turkish jails, and the women and children car- 
ried to the slave-markets of Egypt and Asia Minor. Missolonghr 
was again besieged. The Greek garrison, composed of only 4,000 
men, defended itself for one year with the heroism of the ancient 
Greeks. Numberless assaults were successfully repulsed, and every 
summons to surrender the fortress was refused with the reply: 
" Liberty or death ! " The Turkish mercenaries had to be driven to 
the attacks with whips. At last Ibrahim arrived. The Greeks suc- 
ceeded twice in furnishing provisions to the garrison ; then the im- 
port of supplies was debarred ; they endured the extremities of 
famine ; the plan to relieve them was betrayed, and frustrated by the 
enemies; finally the fortress was taken by storm (April 22, 1826 A. 
D.) Those men and women who were in condition to fight ex- 
pected nothing but death, and received it by the swords of the 
enemies, in the sea, in wells and in flames. The weaker women and 
children, old men and wounded assembled in the arsenal ; their 
leader, Christus CapsaHs, flung a torch into the mines, and they, 
together with 2,000 barbarians, were all engulfed in one grave. 
The whole siege cost the Turks 25,000 men. Athens, after a brave 
defense, also fell a prey to them. Lord Cochrane commanded the 
Greek fleet; Church, another British warrior, the land forces. Capo 
dTstria, formerly Russian minister, became the president of the 
republic. 

Induced by the influence of the great English minister. Can- 
ning, England, France and Russia finally agreed to summon the 
sultan to give hberty to the Greeks, on condition of an annual 
tribute. As Mahmud refused the summons, those powers sent their 

How did Ibrahim deal with the captives ? With the women and children ? 
Give the narrative of the siege of Missolonghi. How strong was the garrison ?' 
How long a time did it defend itself? What was its answer when it was sum- 
moned to surrender? Who arrived at last? What was the garrison at last 
obliged to endure ? Why were they not relieved ? How did the war-like men 
die ? How the women, children and old men ? How many Turks perished 
with them ? What was the loss of the Turks in the siege ? Who commanded 
the Greek fleet ? Who the land forces? Who became president? Who sum- 
moned the sultan to grant liberty to the Greeks ? Induced by whom ? How 
did they force him to do it ? 



273 

fleets, and Codrington, the English admiral, and commander of 
their united naval forces, burned the Turko-Egyptian fleet in the 
harbor of Navarino (Oct. 20, 1827). A French army expelled 
Ibrahim from the Morea. The united powers resolved that Greece, 
in future, should be a Christian hereditary monarchy. When the 
Porte rejected this arrangement, the Russian general, Diebitsch, 
crossed the Balkan Mountains (1829 A. D.), took Adrianople, and 
approached the Turkish capital. The Sultan now listened to the 
overtures of peace, which he signed at Adrianople. So far the war 
had failed in answering the hopes of the Greeks, who loved inde- 
pendence and liberty. The allied powers, having previously deter- 
mined to change Greece into a monarchy, first appointed Prince 
Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, as its king; but, as he soon resigned, 
they placed over it as king the Bavarian prince, Otto, a youth of 
seventeen years (1833 A. D.) Athens became the capital of the 
new monarchy. 

§ 116. AiTieriea. United States. Missouri Compromise. 

Monroe Doctrine. Protective Tariff. Contests of 

the Spanish Colonies for Independence. 

Bolivar. Brazil. 

The cessation of war and the industry of the people soon 
brought great prosperity to the United States. Commerce, manu- 
factures and agriculture revived and flourished wonderfully. The 
question of admitting Missouri into the Union as a slave State or as 
a free State was finally settled (1821 A. D.) by the " Missouri Com- 
promise." This compromise prohibited slavery in all territory 
west of the Mississippi, and north of 36° 30' north latitude. 
President Monroe, in a message to congress recommending the 
recognition of the South American republics, which had been 
struggling for independence against Spain, proclaimed what is 
known as the " Monroe Doctrine," which is, that the American 
continents " are not considered as subject for future colonization by 
any European power." A protective tariff against goods imported 

Who commanded their naval forces ? Who expelled Ibrahim from the 
Morea? What did the united powers resolve upon? Did the Sultan accept 
their arrangement ? Narrate how General Diebitsch forced him to accept it. 
Was the hope of the Greeks fulfilled? Who became their king? What city 
became their capital? § 116. Were the United States prosperous after the war? 
Explain the meaning of the Missouri compromise; of the Monroe doctrine. 
Who was the author of the protective tariff? 

(18) 



274 

from abroad was enacted by congress (1828 A. D.) Henry Clay 
was the author of this policy. 

In the Spanish colonies of America the State and Church offices 
were given only to Spaniards, who enriched themselves by this pol- 
icy. Domestic goods were not allowed to be sold but to Spain, 
and only Spanish goods were to be imported. When the States- 
General established a liberal constitution in the native country 
(18 1 2 A. D.), the colonies demanded the same rights. This just 
demand being refused, most of them threw off the king's dominion 
and constituted their own governments. As Ferdinand VII. then 
demanded unconditional submission, they took up arms in order to 
become entirely independent, and fought to the utmost. The 
cruelty of the king only inflamed their courage the more. They 
became republics. Civil concord, however, was lacking in most of 
them. ^ 

The vice-kingdom Rio de la Plata first began tlie combat for 
liberty ; it gained its independence, fighting principally under the 
command of the brave General San Martin. By degrees several 
republics arose from the kingdom, which later (181 7 A. D.) entered 
into a confederation, and gave themselves a constitution modeled 
after that of the United States. Slavery was aboUshed. — Uruguay 
and Paraguay later separated from the union. In Paraguay the 
lawyer Dr. Francia, a pupil of the Jesuits, ruled for a long time with 
a dictator's power. 

Venezuela declared its independence almost simultaneously with 
that of the La Plata States (181 1 A. D.) As an awful earthquake 
then visited and almost entirely demolished the capital, Caracas, by 
which 70,000 persons were killed in Valencia, the clergy declared 
•this natural phenomenon to be a divine punishment for having 
separated from Spain, and summoned the inhabitants to return to its 
dominion. This, in fact, was done, and the repubUcans were severe- 
ly persecuted. But Bolivar led 600 men over the Andes (1813 A. 
D.); thousands joined him to revenge the death of the patriots; he 

What privileges did the Spaniards enjoy in the Spanish colonies ? What of 
domestic and Spanish goods ? What did the colonies demand in 18 12 ? What 
was the effect of Ferdinand's order of unconditional submission? What did the 
colonies become ? Who began the combat for independence ? Under what 
commander did La Plata gain its independence ? What of its several republics ? 
What of Uruguay and Paraguay ? Of Dr. Francia ? — Of Venezuela ? Of Car- 
acas and Valencia ? What did the clergy declare ? To whose dominion did the 
inhabitants return ? 



275 

vanquished the Spaniards, entered Caracas, his native town, in 
solemn triumph, and was saluted by the people as the deliverer of 
the country. War continued with variable success ; Morillo, Ferdi- 
nand's general, misruled the country and was as cruel as another 
Alva; Bolivar was obUged to flee to San Domingo; the absolute 
monarchy seemed to get the victory. But the hero soon returned 
and fought again with good success. New Granada united with 
Venezuela (1819 A. D.), and both republics, in honor of the dis- 
coverer of America, assumed the name of Columbia. Bolivar be- 
came their president (1821 A. D.), and at last expelled the Spaniards 
entirely (1823 A. D.) 

San Martin also aided the inhabitants of Chili (18 17 A. D.), and 
defeated the Spanish troops. He was nominated protector of the 
new republic. From Chili he advanced victoriously to Peru and 
captured Lima (182 1 A. D.), while the English hero, Cochrane, 
with his ships, protected the coast of this country. As the royalists 
regained supreme power, Bolivar, hastening to succor the republic 
cans, defeated the Spaniards. His lieutenant-general, Sucre, at Aya- 
cucho, gained the decisive victory; warriors of Napoleon, Germans 
and English were fighting as volunteers with him ; the royal army 
was annihilated ; two viceroys and six generals surrendered. Boli- 
var seized also the rest of upper Peru from the Spaniards (1825 A. 
D.); the land changed into a special republic, and called itself 
Bolivia, in honor of its deliverer. Bolivar framed new constitutions 
in both States, and became their president for life. So much power 
centered in one man, excited against him jealousy and fear ; several 
conspiracies were planned to take his life; in addition, the republics 
themselves disagreeing, he resigned his exalted position, and soon 
after died (1830 A. D.) 

Mexico also declared itself independent (1813 A. D.), and framed 
its first constitution. Mina, the valorous champion of liberty in the 
mother country, put himself at the head of the new government, 

Who delivered them ? Give a narrative of Bolivar's activity. What of 
Morillo? Of "Bolivar's flight? What other provinces united with Venezuela ? 
What name did the two republics assume ? Who became their president ? 
What inhabitants did San Martin also aid ? What was he nominated ? To what 
city did he advance from Chili ? Who protected the coast of Peru ? Who suc- 
ceeded the republicans ? Who, at Ayacucho, gained the decisive victory ? Who 
was fighting with Sucre ? What result did the victory have ? What name did 
Peru assume in honor of Bolivar ? What did he frame, and what become ? 
What was planned against him ? What position did he resign ? What of Mexico ? 
Who put himself at the head of the new government ? 



276 

but was taken prisoner and shot. Iturbide, who, it was thought, 
would combat the republicans, joined them (1820 A. D.), effected 
the downfall of the Spanish dominion, and was, by the influence of 
the troops, nominated emperor (1822 A. D.) But Santa Anna pro- 
claimed the republic ; the former was banished, and when he re- 
turned, was seized and shot (1824 A. D.) The land gave itself 
another constitution, resembling that of the United States. Slavery, 
too, was aboHshed (1829 A. D.) After the death of Iturbide, several 
presidents rapidly succeeded each other (1824-1833 A. D.), until 
Santa Anna was elected president (1833 A. D.) — Guatemala also 
became a republic (1821 A. D.) 

As John VI., king of Portugal, returned to this land, Brazil de- 
manded to be separated from the mother country ; he was compelled 
to acknowledge it as an independent realm, and permit his son Don 
Pedro I. to be its emperor (1825 A. D.) In later time Pedro fell 
out with the national party; an insurrection broke out (1831 A. D.), 
the troops refused to obey him ; then he gave up his claim to the 
throne in favor of his son Pedro II. and went to Portugal. 

2. THE EEVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FEANCE, AND ITS OONSEQUENOES - 
1830 to 1848 A. D. 



§117. France. Revolution of July. Dethronement of 
Charles X. The Family of Orleans. 

Charles X. continued to govern in an arbitrary way. He again 
dissolved a Chamber of the Deputies, thinking it to be too liberal 
(1830 A. D.) In order to manage the new elections according to 
his pleasure, promises, threats and violence were tried ; the bishops 
issued pastoral letters; the king, a summons to the people. The new 
delegates, nevertheless, were yet more liberal men. Now the king 
pubhshed the six ill-famed ordinances by which he suspended the 
liberty of the press, dissolved the newly-elected Chamber of Depu- 
ties, and changed the law of elections from bad to worse (July 26). 
The constitution was destroyed ; yet, in the evening of the day upon 

What was his success ? What of Iturbide ? What did Santa Anna proclaim ? 
What was the end of Iturbide? What constitution did Mexico adopt? W^hat 
was also abolished ? Who was at last elected president ? What did Brazil de- 
mand when John VI. returned to Portugal ? Who became emperor ? To whom 
was Don Pedro I., when an insurrection broke out, obliged to resign the throne ? 
§ 117. Give an account of the arbitrary government of Charles X. What did 
he dissolve ? What means did he and the bishops employ ? Did they succeed ? 
What ordinances did he publish ? 



277 

which the ordinances were pubHshed, the revolt began in Paris. 
First the editors of the hberal papers and the newly-elected deputies 
declared their opposition to them. On the morning of July 27th all 
the usual business was suspended, and the indignant people thronged 
the streets. The government caused the printing-ofifices to be 
broken open and the presses to be seized, and ordered the arrest 
(by the sheriffs) of fifty of the most prominent citizens, besides 
directing that the " rabble " (as the people were designated) should 
be dispersed by the soldiers and cannons^ The police, the royal 
guards, the Swiss regiments, and the troops of the line were marched ; 
most of the latter, however, refused to fight their fellow-citizens. 
First the guards made an attack ; several defenseless old men and 
women were killed, and hereby the signal of the combat was given. 
It commenced in every street, and lasted the whole day. The 
prime minister, Polignac, himself ordered it to be continued, and 
hinting something about St. Bartholomew, said: "Go on in this 
way ! Bleeding in July is as wholesome as in August ! " Mean- 
time, the careless king, as usual, played whist at St. Cloud. 

In the night the citizens prepared for the next day. The 
national guards, which the king had previously disbanded, volun- 
tarily reorganized themselves, arms were looked for, and barricades 
built, that is, the streets were blocked up with upset wagons, planks, 
and pavmg-stones. The king declared Paris in a state of siege, 
committed to the Mareschal Marmont the chief command of the 
troops, and ordered more regiments to march to Paris. On the 
28th all the important posts of the city were occupied by armed 
citizens, and the national guards moved on. Youths also placed 
themselves in the ranks of the combatants. The pupils of the 
polytechnic school were the leaders of the bands ; the students of 
medicine attended to the wounded. Women, maidens and children 
encouraged the fighters, procured ammunition, provisions and re- 
freshments, fired from windows, and showered stones, beams, some- 
what effect did the "publication of the ordinances cause in Paris ? What did 
the liberal papers and. the new deputies declare ? What of business and of the 
people ? What did the government order ? What forces were marched ? Who 
refused to fight ? Whom did the guards first attack ? What did then commence ? 
Who ordered the combat? What did Polignac say ? What was meanwhile the 
pastime of the king ? How did the citizens prepare for the next day ? How did 
they build barricades ? In what state did the king declare Paris to be ? To 
whom did he commit the chief command ? By whom were the important posts 
of the city occupied ? How were the students of the polytechnic school and of 
medicine employed ? How the women, maidens and children ? 



278 

times even whole chimneys upon the enemy. A young girl, in the 
midst of the tumult, hoisted the tri-colored flag. Arms and alarm- 
bells resounded everywhere; the whole city was one vast camp. 
Marmont ordered all divisions of the troops to attack at all points 
simultaneously. They fired with cannons and grape-shot at the 
citizens ; thousands of them fell, but nevertheless they resisted 
bravely, crying : " Down with the servants of the tyrant ! I^ong 
live liberty ! " The royalists were everywhere defeated, the barracks 
of the Swiss mercenaries, and the palace of the archbishop were 
taken by storm ; three regiments of the troops of the line joined the 
people. The fight was especially murderous before the bridge of the 
Greve-place, where a youth cried : " Give the bridge my name if I 
die ! My name is Arcole! " He was the first who hurried towards 
it, and fell pierced by balls. Thovisands followed him, and the 
bridge was taken by. assault. It received the name of the fallen 
hero. A pupil of the polytechnic school, amidst a shower of gun- 
shot, grasped a hostile cannon in his arms, crying : "I will rather 
die than quit its hold ! " By evening only a small part of the city 
was still possessed by the royalists. Meanwhile, Charles was again 
playing at cards, and a great chase was arranged for the next day. 
Lafitte, a member of the Liberal party, still declared to the Min- 
ister of State that peace could be restored, if the ordinances 
would be withdrawn and the ministers dismissed ; but his declara- 
tion was not heeded. On the 29th the drums beat the general in all 
quarters of the city, and the alarm-bells resounded ; the assembly of 
deputies appointed Lafayette commander-in-chief of the armed 
people, and organized a temporary government. The royal troops 
were expelled from their last positions; the Louvre and Palais 
Royal conquered, in spite of the resistance of the Swiss guards, and 
finally the Tuileries, too, taken by storm. This completed the vic- 
tory. The people were exultant. A young girl who, amidst a shower 
of bullets, had captured a cannon, was carried about in a triumphal 
car with shouts and songs of victory. The dead were solemnly 

What did a girl hoist ? What was the aspect of the city ? What did Mar- 
rnont order ? How did the citizens behave ? What did they cry ? What was 
their success? What of the mercenaries? Of the palace of the archbishop? 
Who joined the people ? Before what bridge was the fight murderous ? What 
of Arcole ? Who clasped a cannon in his arms ? What was the situation of the 
city by evening ? What of Charles ? What did Lafitte declare ? With what 
result? Who was the next day appointed general-in-chief? What was organ- 
ized? What palaces were also taken ? How was a young girl honored? 



279 

buried, and a plain cross, with the inscription, " To the memory of 
the French who died for liberty," was put on their graves. 

The provisional government declared the power of Charles X. 
forfeited, and appointed Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, heutenant- 
general of the kingdom. The assembly of deputies improved the 
constitution, stating that the sovereignty of the people was to be the 
foundation of the government, and adjudging to the nation the 
right to change all estabHshed constitutions ; then they proclaimed 
Louis Philippe king. Charles,with his family, was obhged to quit the 
country, and Polignac, with three other ministers, was sentenced to 
imprisonment for life ; however, after six years' confinement he was 

released. 

The newly-elected king did not fulfill the expectations of the 
patriots; he, by degrees, joined the odious party of retrocession. 
The worthiest men, like Lafayette and Lafitte, withdrew from public 
offices. Bloody insurrections broke out in la Vendee, and other 
parts of the country. Philippe's life was several times attacked, most 
dangerously by Fieschi, who discharged an infernal machine at 
him. Louis Napoleon, nephew of the Emperor Napoleon, excited 
two insurrections for the purpose of overthrowing the government ; 
he was captured and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. In or- 
der to more easily control the inhabitants of Paris, Phifippe caused the 
city to be fortified, which enterprise cost the country enormous sums 
of money. — During his reign, Algiers was conquered and colonized. 
Abd-el-Cader, chieftain of the Bedouins, who allied with the em- 
peror of Morocco (1844 A. D.), offered, in this country, a most per- 
tinacious resistance. Bugeaud and other French generals combated 
him; at last, Lamoriciere took him prisoner (1847 A. D.) 

I 118. Belgium. Separation from Holland. Germany. 

The Belgians, who had been compelled by the congress of 
Vienna to unite with the Hollanders, havmg long been goaded by 
unjust laws, and treated rather as vassals than as subjects of the 

How the killed citizens ? What was the inscription on their graves ? Whose 
power was declared forfeited ? Who was appointed lieutenant-general ? In what 
manner did the deputies improve the constitution ? What ought to be the foun- 
dation of the government ? What right w^as adjudged to the nation ? Who was 
proclaimed king ? What of Charles, of Polignac, and other ministers ? What 
party did Louis Philippe join ? What was the consequence of it ? What of his 
life ? Of Louis Napoleon ? Why did the king fortify Paris ? What country was 
conquered and colonized ? What general took Abd-el-Cader prisoner? 



280 

Dutch king, judging the period favorable for dissolving their union 
with a people foreign to them in language, manners and interests, 
arose in insurrection (August, 1830 A. D.), and after a contest of 
four days' duration, drove the Dutch authorities and garrison from 
their capital, Briissel. In vain were efforts made by the prince of 
Orange to reconcile the conflicting demands of the Dutch and Bel- 
gians, and again unite the two people under one government. 
The proposals of the prince were disavowed by his father, the king 
of Holland, and equally rejected by the Belgians ; and the latter 
made a formal declaration of their independence. Soon after, the 
representatives of the five great powers — France, Great Britain, 
Prussia, Russia and Austria — assembled in London, and directed 
that hostilities should cease between the Dutch and Belgians. The 
latter having decided upon a constitutional monarchy, their congress 
elected Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, as their king. As the 
Dutch continued to hold the city of Antwerp, contrary to the deter- 
mination of the five great powers, a French army entered Belgium 
(1832 A. D.) and, after obstinate defense, compelled the surrender 
of the place. Since her separation from Holland, Belgium has in- 
creased rapidly in every industrial pursuit and social improvement. 
Encouraged by the success of the people in the days of July in 
France, the patriots in Brunswick, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel and Han- 
over also arose in sedition, and compelled the sovereigns to improve 
the . constitutions of their lands. Some bold malcontents even 
designed the plan of setting Germany free by revolution. On 
an appouited day, some bands of the conspirators entered Frank- 
fort, killed several soldiers, and proclaimed the German republic. 
But the scheme was already betrayed ; troops marched forward and 
brought the enterprise to an ignominious end. These events caused 
new and still more severe decrees of the German confederation. 
The liberty of the press was again abridged, and all political clubs, 
assemblies and festivals of the people were forbidden. Nay, the 

^ 1 18. Why did the Belgians dissolve their union with Holland ? How long 
did the contest last ? Who tried to reconcile them with the latter country ? 
Who disavowed the proposals of the prince? What powers wanted the hostili- 
ties to cease ? What of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg ? Of Antwerp ? What 
army interfered in the struggle ? With what result ? How did Belgium get 
along after her separation? What of Saxony, Hanover, etc., in Germany? What 
plan did some malcontents form ? Did they succeed ? Why not ? WHiat did 
these events cause ? What was abridged ? What forbidden ? What secret treaty 
was formed by the sovereigns ? 



281 

sovereigns vowed, in a secret treaty at Vienna, to annul the consti- 
tutions of the people (1834 A. D.) 

Frederic William III. established in his States a new system of 
regulating the customs (1833 A. D.), which the other German 
States have since joined. It is called " German ZoUverein." By 
it they agreed to levy customs at a common frontier. Prussia 
became its center, 

I 119. Switzerland. Political Reforms. Secession War. 
Amendment of the Constitution. 

The desire of liberty also increased more and more in the Swiss 
nation. The cantons of Tessin,Vaud and Lucerne first amended their 
constitutions; soon thousands of citizens assembled, too, in Zurich, 
and in most of the cantons, demanding new constitutions. The 
expulsion of Charles X. gave them courage to make such demands. 
In vain the governments expected assistance from the Holy Alli- 
ance ; their delay caused revolts in several cantons. The patricians 
of the cities resigned their power ; everywhere popular constitu- 
tions were established (i 830-1 831 A. D.) New, stirring life was 
roused in all regenerated cantons, and manifested itself by all kinds 
of popular creations. National education took a free, towering 
flight. Ziirich and Berne founded universities. 

After the first revolutionary attempt of Louis Napoleon, the 
French government demanded his banishment from Switzerland, 
where he was a citizen. The foreign powers supported the demand, 
and French troops marched to the Swiss frontier. The western 
cantons armed themselves also, and a Swiss corps of soldiers occu- 
pied the frontier from Neuchatel to Basel. But Louis Napoleon 
having left Switzerland of his own accord, France declared herself 
to be satisfied and withdrew her troops. 

By degrees the conservative party once more regained its power. 
When Dr. Strauss, an eminent theologian, was called as professor to 
Ziirich, a vehement agitation seized the people. Most of the 
parishes petitioned against his call (1839 A. D.) Strauss was pen- 

What did Frederic William III. establish? g 119. What Swiss cantons 
amended their constitutions ? From whom did the governments expect assist- 
ance ? What did the patricians resign ? What was established ? What effects 
did the popular commotions cause ? Where were universities founded ? Whose 
banishment did the French government demand ? Who occupied the Swiss 
frontier ? What further of Louis Napoleon ? What party later regained its former 
power ? How did the people of the canton Zurich like the call of Dr. Strauss ? 



282 

sioned. A multitude assembled and directed a threatening address 
to the government ; they armed themselves, and, led by a clergy- 
man, marched to Ziirich. After a short conflict, in which some of 
the mutineers were shot, the government dissolved itself, and a new 
one was constituted by the victorious party. 

A similar revolt took place in the canton of Argov-ie, the con- 
vents being at the head of the commotion. The government dis- 
persed the revolters, and abolished the monasteries. In the canton 
of Lucerne the infatuated people changed the liberal constitution, 
called the Jesuits into the land, and concluded a separate confedera- 
tion with the Catholic cantons for the purpose of defending their 
religious rights. The number of the malcontents in Lucerne 
increased, and they resolved to overthrow the government of the 
Jesuits. Several thousand volunteers of the liberal cantons invaded 
the canton in order to support them, but they were defeated, and 
about 2,000 taken prisoners. Their cantons had to pay large sums 
of ransom for their release. The diet ordered the seceders to dis- 
solve their alliance, and to dismiss the Jesuits, and resolved, as they 
refused to obey, to compel them by force of arms (1847 A. D.) 
Dufour was general- in- chief of the confederate army, comprising 
100,000 men. First, Freiburg, the bulwark of the Jesuits, was 
taken, then Lucerne was attacked, and the army of the secession- 
ists routed. The rulers of Lucerne took to flight, and the city re- 
ceived her deliverers with enthusiasm. The other cantons, too, 
submitted, the Jesuits were banished forever, and the convents, 
which originated the war, had, principally, to defray its expenses. 
The war had not lasted but twenty-five days, and did not cost more 
than about one hundred human lives. This happy success was 
brought about by the wise conduct of the army, and the valor and 
good discipline of the troops. Peace and concord was restored to 
all regions of Switzerland. 

How did a multitude behave towards the government ? Where did they 
march to? Who was their leader? What did they constitute? Where did a 
similar revolt take place ? How did the government of Argovie deal with the 
revolters and monasteries ? What did the people of Lucerne change ? Whom 
did they call into the land ? What confederation did the Catholic cantons con- 
clude ? By whom were the malcontents of Lucerne supported ? With what 
success ? What did the diet order the seceders to do ? How did it compel them ? 
How large was the army of the confederates ? Who was general-in-chief ? What 
town was first taken ? Which one then ? What of the other cantons ? Of the 
Jesuits ? Of convents ? How long did the war last ? How many were killed ? 



283 

A revision of the confederacy was then resolved on, and a new- 
constitution framed. Its most important enactments are the follow- 
ing : " A national council, elected by the people, and a states-, 
council, form the National Assembly. Liberty of rehgion, of the 
press, and the rights of petition are warranted. The cantons are 
forbidden to allow their soldiers to go into foreign service for hire. 
The Order of Jesuits is never more to be admitted. A confederate 
council, consisting of seven members, possesses the executive 
power." 

§ 120. Poland and Russia. Revolution in Poland. Cau- 
casian War. Shamyl. 

According to the decrees of the congress of Vienna, the king- 
dom of Polonia should have a separate constitution ; but ere long 
the Russians held the chief places of government ; the article of the 
constitution establishing liberty of the press was nullified ; publicity 
of debate in the Polish diet was abolished ; Constantine, brother of 
Emperor Nicholas, governing the kingdom, proved to be the worst 
of tyrants, etc. These reasons, and the successful examples of 
France and Belgium, roused the Polish patriots again to action. The 
students of a military school at Warsaw first attempted to seize Con- 
stantine at his quarters (1830 A. D.) but during the struggle with his 
attendants he escaped to his guards, and fell back to the frontier. 
Chlopicki was first appointed commander-in-chief by the provi- 
sional government, and afterwards was made dictator, but he soon 
resigned. The patriots proposed to abolish servitude in order to 
gain the support of the mass of the nation ; but the aristocrats 
resisted them, confiding in the mercy of the Russian emperor, to 
whom they sent deputies. The latter refused all terms but absolute 
submission, and sent an army of 200,000 men into Poland under the 
command of Field-marshal Diebitsch. Skrzynecki (skshe-nets-ke) 
being now appointed commander-in-chief of the Polish forces, 
defeated several Russian generals, and compelled Diebitsch to retreat 

Give the most important enactments of the new constitution. What liberties 
were warranted ? What of mercenaries ? Of the Order of Jesuits ? Who pos- 
sesses the executive power? ^ 120. What wrongs did Poland suffer from Rus- 
sia? Who held the chief offices? What of liberty of the press and of public- 
ity of debate in diet ? How did Constantine govern the kingdom ? What did 
the students of the military school at Warsaw attempt ? Who was the first com- 
mander-in-chief? What did the patriots propose? And why? Who resisted 
them ? In whose mercy did they confide ? Did they succeed ? What and 
whom did Nicholas send ? What of Skrzynecki ? Whom did he defeat ? 



284 

into the Prussian and Austrian territories. Thus Prussia and Austria 
interpreted and enforced the principles of the " Holy Alliance ! " 
Skrzynecki, with 20,000 Pohsh combatants, forced his way to 
Ostrolenka, where he engaged in battle with 60,000 Russians (1831 
A. D.) The combat was terrific ; no quarter was asked and none was 
given. The Polish army, led by the heroic General Bern, lost one- 
fourth of its number. The Russians had three generals killed. Soon 
after Diebitsch and the Grand-duke Constantine died suddenly of 
cholera — a contagious disease which came from Asia to Russia, 
spreading fronj there through most of the lands of Europe, and 
killing hundreds of thousands. 

Dissensions among the Polish chiefs increased, and Paskewitsch, 
who had succeeded Diebitsch in the command, assembled 100,000 
men at Warsaw to storm the city. Although the city was defended 
with heroism, yet, after two days' fighting, in which 20,000 Rus- 
sians were slain, the cowardly commander of Warsaw surrendered to 
the Russian general. Large numbers of the fugitives crossed the 
frontiers and went into voluntary exile to England, France, Switzer- 
land, and other countries. The universities of Warsaw and Wilna 
were abolished ; most of the generals who surrendered were, un- 
der an amnesty, sent to different parts of the Russian empire, and the 
soldiers and the Polish nobility were consigned by thousands to the 
dungeons and mines of Siberia. Poland was declared a Russian 
province. 

Remarkable also is Russia's war against the Mohammedan 
nations which live in the Caucasus mountains, east of the great 
military road. For fully one century it had endeavored to de- 
prive them, by cunning and cruelty, of their independence ; but 
they resisted victoriously. The last time their priests were leading 
the combat, and made it a matter of religion ; therefore it was waged 
with the utmost irritation. Their chieftain, Shamyl, being also their 
most revered divine, became particularly formidable to the Russians. 
He allured General Grabbe (like Arminius did the Romans) into 

Where did Diebitsch retreat to ? What of the battle of Ostrolenka ? Who 
died soon after ? What of the cholera ? What increased among the Polish 
chiefs ? What city did Paskewitsch storm ? How many Russians were killed ? 
Who surrendered Warsaw ? Where did many fugitives go? What of the uni- 
versities of Warsaw and Wilna? Of the surrendering generals? Of the cap- 
tured soldiers and noblemen ? What did Poland become ? — Of what did Russia 
endeavor to deprive the nations in the Caucasus mountains ? Did she soon suc- 
ceed ? Who were their leaders in the combat ? Which of them was the most 
formidable ? Where did he allure General Grabbe ? 



285 

impassable forests, and killed 2,000 enemies, with most of the offi- 
cers (1842 A. D.) Three years later he caused Woronzofif to meet 
with the same fate. The cholera was in alliance with these valorous 
tribes. Seldom a Russian soldier returned home from their moun- 
tains. Emperor Nicholas attempted to destroy their forests with 
sulphur and pitch. An idle enterprise ! The siege of the fortified 
village of Gergebil was also a failure (1847 A. D.) Shamyl every- 
where pushed the Russians back (1851 A. D.) The Caucasians 
were not completely subjugated until 1859. 

I 121. Great Britain. Emancipation of the Catholics. 
Reform of the Parliament. The Slaves Emanci- 
pated. Tne Corn Laws Relaxed. 'Connell. 
Lord Russell. Dominion in the East 
Indies. War Against China. 

After the treaty of Paris Great Britain again subjected Europe 
to the scepter of its industry. Nevertheless the people, especially 
those who were employed in factories, lived in a very oppressed 
condition. The weight of the pubhc debts increased so much that 
the interest alone amounted to 34,000,000 pounds sterhng. But 
Ireland's situation was the most helpless. There English landlords 
possessed most of the estates of the realm. The Irish themselves 
were only their tenants. The daily hves of the domestic beasts 
were to be preferred to their own condition. In the same way the 
Irish Church property belonged to the Enghsh clergy. No 
Catholic-Irish was admitted to the British parliament. Now, the 
highly esteemed and resolute orator, O'Connell, putting himself at 
the head of his countrymen, solicited a vacant position in the par- 
Hament. He was elected, though a powerful Protestant was his 
competitor (1828 A. D.) At last the barriers which had so long 
excluded Roman Catholics from the legislature were removed 
(1829 A. D.) 

There was another defect in the organization of parhament. 
The memberships of the upper house were hereditary, and for the 

How many enemies were killed? What of Woronzoff? Of the cholera? 
What did Nicholas try in vain? What of the siege of Gergebil? AVhen were 
these mountaineers finally subjugated? ^ 121. Who again ruled the industry of 
Europe ? In what condition did the English people live ? What was the amount 
of the interest on the public debt ? Whose situation was the most helpless ? 
Why ? To whom did the Irish church property belong ? Were Irishmen ad- 
mitted into parliament ? Who was first elected ? When did they obtain ad- 
mission into the legislature ? What other defect was there in the organization 
of parliament? 



286 

lower, too, but few elections were made by the people themselves. 
Most of them depended on the peers in the House of Lords, and 
on other rich private persons. This abuse, too, was forcibly de- 
nounced. The decided sentiment of the nation in favor of reform 
occasioned the resignation of the Tory ministry, headed by the 
duke of Wellington, and a Whig ministry, pledged for reform, then 
came into power (1830 A. D.) Lord Russell brought forward in 
parliament the ministerial plan for reforming the representation of 
the realm which, if adopted, would have extended the right of 
suffrage to half a million additional voters (1831 A. D.) The bill 
was lost in the House of Commons. The king hastily dissolved 
the parhament, and ordered new elections. The advocates of re- 
form were returned by nearly all the large constituencies. The 
reform bill, being again introduced, passed the Commons, but was 
rejected by the Lords. Popular resentment was manifested 
by serious riots, in which an immense amount of private property 
and many public buildings were destroyed. The bill was a third 
time introduced by Lord Russell and again defeated in the House 
of Lords. Now, all members of the cabinet resigned; political 
unions were formed throughout the country ; the people determined 
to refuse the payment of taxes, and demanded that the ministers 
should . be reinstated. It was done ; the Lords withdrew their 
opposition, and the bill was hurried through both houses, and finally 
passed (June 7, 183 1). The law of the reform of the Irish Church 
also reheved the burdens the Irish had to bear for the interest of 
the English Church. In these reforms, and generally in Ireland's 
welfare, O'Connell concurred with the greatest energy. After this 
slave emancipation was carried. England, after paying vast sums 
in indemnifying the planters, set the slaves at liberty in her colonies. 
According to the Corn Law, a high duty was imposed on the 
import of foreign cereals. But, as the potato crop in Ireland in 
1845 ^^^s ^ *^o^^l failure, in consequence of unceasing rain, Minister 

Who decidedly desired its reform ? What ministry resigned ? Who then 
came into power ? What plan did Lord Russell propose in parliament ? Where 
was the bill lost ? What did the king dissolve ? What did he order ? What 
candidates were returned ? Where did the bill then pass ? Where not ? How 
was popular resentment manifested ? Who, at the third introduction of the bill, 
opposed it again? Who then resigned? What did the people determine to 
refuse and what demand ? Who now consented to the passage of the bill ? 
What burdens of the Irish Church were also relieved? Who, in these reforms, 
acted with energy ? What was the meaning of the Corn-Law ? 



287 

Robert Peel, supported by the Free-trade League and its popular 
leader Richard Cobden, proposed in parliament the repeal of the 
Corn Law, and the motion was carried, though not without fierce 

contest in both houses. , , . • r ^i. 

In the East Indies the English finished the subjection of the 
Mahrattas (1817 A. D.), then made the territory of Burmah a tnb- 
utary, and commenced war against the Sikhs (1845 A. D ) Their 
dominion already reaches from the Indus to the Irrawaddy, and 
from the Himalaya Mountains to Ceylon, including over one hun- 
dred miUions of subjects, and about one hundred milhons of tribu- 
tary inhabitants. , j r 
In order to revenge the insults which British subjects had suf- 
fered from China, Great Britain waged war with this realm (1839- 
1842 A D.), and compelled it to open to her ships five seaports, 
and to give up to her the island of Hong Kong.-As princess Vic- 
toria daughter of the duke of Kent, and granddaughter of George 
III., succeeded to the throne, Hanover was separated from the 
crown of Great Britain. 

9122 United States of North America. Indian Wars. 

War with Mexico. Generals Taylor and Scott. 

Battles at Buena Vista and Chapultepee. 

Capture of Vera Cruz and the 

City of Mexico. 

Under the administration of President Jackson, the western 
Indians, whose chieftain was called Black Hawk, began hostilities 
against the inhabitants of Illinois (1832 A. D.) A battle was fought 
on the banks of the Mississippi, and the Indians were defeated. 
They had to give up large tracts of western lands. Three years 
after, a war with the Seminole Indians, called the Flonda War 
broke out, and lasted seven years (1835-^84. A. D.) The cause of 
the war was an attempt by the United States government to remove 
the Indians to the west of the Mississippi. They had previously 
made a treaty agreeing to remove to the Indian Territory, but now 
refused to dp so. In the fos^^ction_the^ndi^^ 
-^;r;i;;r^^^— ;ri^^^^rt Peel propose its repeal? Who assisted hirn> 
Was the law repealed? How far does the dorrimion of England in the East 
Indies reach ? How many millions are subject and tributary to her ? What of 
her war with China? When was Hanover separated from Engand? § 122 
Against whom did the Indian chieftain Blaclc Hawlc wage war ? Where was he 
defeated? What was the result of the defeat? How long did the Flonda war 
last ? What was the cause of the war ? Were the Indians successful ? 



288 

When the chief. Osceola, came to the American camp, under a flag 
of truce, he was seized and imprisoned. Colonel Taylor defeated 
the Indians at Lake Okechobee ; then they retired to the swamps 
and kept up an intermittent war till 1842; finally peace was estab- 
lished. 

As congress passed a new tariff bill (1832 A. D.), laying heavy- 
protective duties on imported articles, this met with ^^olent opposi- 
tion, particularly in the South, where the people did not manufac- 
ture much, and therefore wanted foreign goods as cheap as possible. 
South Carolina led the resistance to the bill. A convention of the 
people of that State said that it should be null and void. President 
Jackson issued a proclamation warning the people that the law 
would be enforced. South Carolina threatened to secede from the 
Union. The matter was settled by a compromise, as Henry Clay 
got a bill passed in congress providing for the gradual reduction of 
the duties. 

The United States resolved to colonize the immense territory of 
the Columbia river (1843 A. D.), and admitted the repubhc of 
Texas into the Union (1845 A. D.) This country had previously 
belonged to the United States of Mexico ; but when a new govern- 
ment in Mexico estabUshed a Central Republic (1835 A. D.), and 
changed the sovereign States into dependent districts, Texas pro- 
tested against this mnovation, and joined the republic of the United 
States. The Mexicans would not agree to the separation, and be- 
sides said that the territory of Texas had never extended farther 
westward than the river Nueces, while the Texans claimed the 
country as far as the Rio Gra-nde. 

General Taylor was ordered into the disputed territory (1845 
A. D.) Early the next year he moved to the Rio Grande, where he 
built Fort Brown, and sent Captain Thornton with a party of 
soldiers up the river to reconnoitre. This party fell into a Mexican 
ambuscade, and was compelled to surrender. When congress 
heard the news of the capture of Thornton's party, it declared that 

Who was imprisoned ? WTio defeated the Indians ? \Miere-did they retire ? 
WTiat bill met opposition in the South in 1832? Why? Who headed it? What 
did the convention of South Carolina say? Who would enforce the law ? What 
did South Carolina threaten to do ? Who compromised the matter ? In what 
manner ? \Miat republic was admitted into the Union in 1845 ? Why did Texas 
separate from Mexico ? Did the latter agree to the separation ? Into what part 
of Texas was General Taylor ordered ? What fort did he build there ? What 
of Captain Thornton ? What did Congress declare when he was captured ? 



289 

Avar existed between the United States and Mexico (nth of May, 
1846). Taylor met and defeated 6,000 Mexicans at Palo Alto (the 
8th of May), and next day defeated another army at Resaca de la 
Palma. The United States now planned the invasion of Mexico on 
three different lines. Taylor was to operate on the line of the Rio 
Grande, a column was to invade the Spanish possessions of New 
Mexico and California, and another was to enter the northern 
States of Mexico. General Taylor captured 9,000 Mexicans at 
INIonterey, and completely vanquished an army of 20,000 men, 
under command of General Santa Anna, in the narrow mountain 
pass of Buena Vista (1847 A. D.) 

About one year previous Captain Fremont, of the topographical 
engineers, had been sent by the government to seek a new route to 
Oregon, farther south than the one usually traveled by emigrants. 
While he was in California, the Mexican commander in that prov- 
ince was raising a force to expel the American settlers. Fremont 
was ordered to protect them. They now flocked to his standard, 
and he beat the Mexicans in several conflicts, and compelled them 
to retire southward. He and Commodore Stockton accomplished 
the overthrow of Mexican authority in California (1847 A. D.) 

General Scott, aided by a considerable part of Taylor's army, 
besieged Vera Cruz, and after a furious bombardment, the castle and 
city surrendered (March 29, 1847). He now began to advance on 
the city of ^Mexico, stormed the works at the mountain pass of 
Cerro Gordo, and routed the Mexican army, newly collected by 
Santa Anna. In the fortified camp of Contreras, at Cherubusco, in 
the stone building called Molino del Rey, and at the castle of Cha- 
pultepec the Americans defeated the Mexicans again. The whole 
Mexican army was routed, and Scott entered the cit}' of Mexico 
(Sept. 14, 1847 A. D.) By the treaty of Guadaloupe-Hidalgo 
(1848 A. D.) Mexico ceded to the United States the vast territory 
now comprised in New Mexico, Utah and California. In return, 

^^^lere did Taylor defeat the Mexicans ? ^^'here again ? How many ? On 
Avhat line of Mexico was Taylor to operate ? In what parts of the countrj- a 
second and a third column ? How many Mexicans did Taylor capture at Mon- 
terey ? Where did he vanquish Santa Anna ? How large was the Mexican 
army ? What commission had the government given to Captain Fremont ? 
^^^lom did the Mexican commander intend to expel from California ? ^\ hat was 
Fremont ordered to do ? How did he execute the order ? What of Commo- 
dore Stockton ? What city did General Scott besiege ? To what city did he then 
advance ? Give an account of his exploits ? What coiintries did Mexico cede 
to the United States ? 

(10; 



290 

Mexico received a compensation of fifteen millions of dollars. 
Thousands of settlers and adventurers have since flocked to Califor- 
nia, in order to gain a fortune in its rich gold-mines. The amount 
of gold taken out between 1849 and 1870 is calculated at over 
$1,000,000,000. 

3. THE KE VOLUTIONS IN 1848. 



I 123. France. Dethronement of Louis Philippe. Es- 
tablishment of a Republic and of an Empire. 
Louis Napoleon III. Franco-German 
War. Battle at Sedan. Restora- 
tion of the Republic. 

The bad election law, according to which only the richer citizens 
had the right to elect deputies for the second chamber, induced the 
opposition party to work for a reform of the elections. During the 
winter of 1847-8 numerous political reform banquets were held 
throughout France. The leaders of the opposition having announced 
that such banquets would be held on February 2 2d (Washington's 
birthday), the government on the evening preceding the 2 2d, forbade 
the intended meeting in Paris, and made extensive military prepara- 
tions to crush at once any attempt at insurrection. Irritated by these 
measures, masses of the people assembled on the 2 2d, without 
causing any disturbance; but the following day they were erecting 
barricades, and began to fight against the soldiers, crying : " Long 
live the Reform ! Down with Guizot (the prime minister) ! " The 
national guards declared themselves for the people, and demanded 
also the dissolution of the Ministry. The ministers resigned ; now the 
uproar subsided, and the people dispersed, the workmen only remain- 
ing behind the barricades. But when the soldiers in front of Guizot's 
palace fired upon the multitude, killing many, the combat was again 
inflamed, and the cry : " To arms ! Down with the assassins ! 
Down with Louis Philippe ! Down with the Bourbons ! " re- 
sounded throughoift Paris. The first day the contest was con- 
tinued. The king appointed Odilon Barrot as minister in order 
to reconcile the people, but in vain. The troops were discour- 

What did she receive in return ? Why did many people go to California ? 
What amount of gold was furnished by the mines in 20 years ? | 123. What 
induced the opposition party to work for a reform of the elections ? What ban- 
quets were held in France ? Where was the banquet forbidden, and what prep- 
arations were made ? Give an account of the events of the 22d of February and 
the following days. 



291 

aged by the pressing masses. Philippe then declared himself 
to be ready to abdicate in favor of his grandson, the count 
of Paris ; the workmen, however, would not have any more 
Bourbons, but wanted a republic and a constitution by which the 
general right of election was established, and labor warranted by 
the State to the poorer classes, believing that it is the duty and in 
the power of government to provide for all their wants. They 
advanced farther, and rushed to the Tuileries. The king had to 
hurriedly quit Paris with his family. In vaui the count of Paris 
presented himself, led by his mother, in the hall of deputies. 
They also had to quickly withdraw from the entering populace. 
The people appointed a provisional government, the leading mem- 
ber of which was M. Lamartine, and to whom belongs the renown 
of having saved the country from immediate anarchy. The ses- 
sions of the Peers were prohibited, free elections arranged, national 
workshops established, the hours of labor in the factories reduced, 
capital punishment for political offenses, the titles of the nobility, 
and slavery abolished, gratuitous instruction in the public schools 
ordered, the republic in the whole country acknowledged, the 
Orleans family banished, and a Constitutional National Assembly, 
convened. However, many workmen were not satisfied with the 
accorded grants. They surrounded the National Assembly, drove 
the deputies from their seats, and tried to dissolve the government 
(15th of May). But in the meantime the national guard was 
called out. The rioters were soon dispersed, and the government 
reinstated. Finding the burdens imposed on the public treasury too 
heavy to be borne, and thousands of workmen unprofitably em- 
ployed in the public workshops, the government ordered such as 
were born in the provinces to return home, and the younger ones of 
the remainder to enlist in the army. Then they fought the combat 
of despair against 150,000 men (June 20-26). General Cavaignac 
vanquished them. Many thousands were killed, thousands of pris- 
oners transported to the transmarine possessions of France, the 
public workshops locked, the former hours of labor restored, and 

What did Philippe declare ? But what was he answered by the workmen ? 
What kind of a constitution did they want ? What was the king obliged to 
do ? And the Count of Paris ? Who was the leading member of the provis- 
ional government? What decrees did it pass? Were all workmen satisfied 
with them ? What did some try to effect ? Did they succeed ? What did the 
government order ? What combat followed ? Who vanquished the refractory 
workmen ? What did the government then effect ? 



292 

Cavaignac declared dictator. The republic received a new consti- 
tution, with one legislative assembly. The executive power should 
be vested in a president, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a 
term of four years. Its principles were declared to be liberty, 
equality and fraternity. Louis Napoleon was elected president, 
receiving five and a half millions of votes, seven and a half millions 
having been polled in the nation. He solemnly swore " to remain 
faithful to the democratic republic." But on the morning of the 
2d of December, 185 1, the inhabitants of Paris awoke to find the 
city filled with troops, while he announced the dissolution of the 
National Assembly, the restoration of universal suffrage which the 
assembly had restricted by disfranchising three millions of electors, 
and the establishment of martial law throughout Paris. The chief 
members of the Assembly, together with Generals Cavaignac, Chan- 
garnier and others, had been seized in their beds, and were already 
in prison. The coup d'etat was entirely successful, and Louis Napo- 
leon was absolute dictator of France. About 300 members of the 
assembly, who declared him guilty of treason, and proclaimed his 
deposition, were surrounded by a band of soldiers and all marched 
to prison. He threatened to abdicate, if the people did not elect him 
president for ten years. An insurrection broke out in Paris (Dec. 
4th) ; he called out troops, killed about 1,000 insurgents, and 
quelled all resistance. His demand was accepted, the people elect- 
ing him president for ten years (Jan. i, 1852). He caused many 
thousands of his adversaries, also Cavaignac, Changarnier, Lamo- 
riciere, etc., to be banished or deported. Before a year had passed, 
the senate, in compliance with his will, adopted a measure to re- 
establish the imperial government, and the people were called upon 
to ratify the measure by their votes. A great majority were in favor 
of the empire (November 20-22). The nation, dazzled by the 
splendor of the merits of his uncle, desired to have the empire 
restored. 

The next year Louis Napoleon, together with England, planned 
the Crimean war against Russia (see § 127). But Europe did 
not afford adequate scope for the scheming emperor. The misrule 

Who should have the executive povi^er ? Who was elected pi-esident ? What 
did Louis Napoleon swear ? What violent act did he perforin on the 2d of 
December ? Who was arrested > What did he threaten ? What broke out ? 
How did he quell the resistance ? What did the people do ? How did Napoleon 
deal with his adversaries ? What measiire did the senate and the people soon 
adopt ? What scheme did he devise concerning Mexico ? 



293 

and disorder in Mexico induced him to send his troops there. The 
Mexican president fled, and Napoleon, from a Mexican assembly, 
procured a resolution permitting him to found a monarchy, and to 
ofter the crown to Archduke Maximilian, brother to the emperor of 
Austria. Maximilian accepted the fatal gift (1863 A. D.) So long 
as the French soldiers upheld him, he maintained, with success, an 
incessant conflict with the republican authority, which he had dis- 
placed. But when those were withdrawn by Napoleon, Maximilian 
was betrayed into the hands of his enemies and shot (1867 A. D.) 

The victories which Prussia gained over Austria, and, in general, 
the rising power of the former State, aroused the envy and jealousy 
of the French nation, as well as of her emperor. A cry arose for 
immediate war; a pretext for a quarrel was easily found. The 
Spaniards, searching for a king, offered the crown to Prince Leo- 
pold, of Hohenzollern, a kinsman to the king of Prussia, who might 
be regarded as head of the family of which Leopold was a member. 
Though the prince announced his refusal of the vacant throne, 
Louis Napoleon demanded a pledge that the king would never, in 
any future time, permit his kinsman to accept the overtures of 
Spain. " Prussia," replied the king, " was in no way concerned 
in the transactions of Prince Leopold and the Spanish government, 
and would not mix herself up with them." Napoleon then de- 
clared war against Prussia, although he was illy-prepared for its 
emergencies, his army comprising only 220,000 men, while the 
German-Prussian army numbered 450,000, led by Count Moltke, the 
greatest military genius of Europe, and other eminent commanders 
(July 19, 1870). Marshal Bazaine, commanding the army at Metz, 
fought two indecisive battles, and finding it impossible to break 
through the German lines, withdrew to the shelter of the fortress. 
MacMahon, commander of another army, hastened to his relief. 
While on the march he was surrounded at Sedan, north of Metz, 
by two Gerrnan armies, which, with 500 pieces of artillery, carried 
all the French positions and sent an incessant storm of shells 

What were his proceedings ? Who became emperor of Mexico ? What was 
his fate ? What .did the victories of Prussia excite in Napoleon and the French 
nation ? What did they want ? What pretext of war did Louis Napoleon con- 
ceive? What pledge did he demand from the king of Prussia? What did the 
king reply ? What did the former then declare ? Was he prepared ? What was 
the relative standing of the French and German armies, and what of the German 
commanders ? Give an account of the war. What was the issue of the battle 
at Sedan ? What was the fate of Louis Napoleon ? 



294 

among the French troops. Napoleon, who was present at the 
battle, surrendered with 83,000 men (Sept. i, 1870), and was taken 
as a prisoner to Germany. When he was liberated, he went to 
England (187 1 A. D.), where he died (1873 A. D.) 

Now the way to Paris was clear for the Germans. As soon as 
the disaster of Sedan was known there, the Parisians deposed Napo- 
leon and estabUshed a repubHc. The Germans completely sur- 
rounded the city which, after four months, during which the inhabit- 
ants endured starvation, capitulated to the enemies (Jan. 30, 1871). 
Now the adherents of the commune of Paris undertook to found 
a government of their own. They seized Paris, manned its defenses, 
and defied the republican government. For many weeks the 
French army besieged and shelled the capital. When at last an 
entrance was forced into the city, thousands of insurgents were 
killed or made prisoners. 

The terms of peace with France were severe. Germany took 
back Alsace and Lorraine, snatched from her by Louis XIV. She 
demanded an indemnity of 2,200,000,000 pounds sterHng, in reim- 
bursement of the charges to which France had unjustly put her. A 
German army would remain on French territory, upheld at French 
expense, till this huge claim was fully satisfied. M. Thiers was now 
president of the republic. He was able to discharge in full the 
claims of Germany, and terminate the occupation within the period 
fixed for that purpose by the treaty. — The present incumbent of the 
presidency is M. Grevy. — Prince Louis Napoleon, the only son of 
Napoleon III., who fought as a volunteer in the English army 
against the Zulus in South Africa, was killed by them (1879 A. D.) 

2 124. Germany. Insurrections in Berlin and in the 

Grand-dukedom of Baden. German National 

Assembly. Sehleswig and Holstein. Prusso- 

Austrian V\/^a.r. Battle of Sadowa. 

The French revolution in the year 1848 caused also vehement 
popular commotions m all States of Germany. The month of 
March everywhere effected insurrections, popular assemblies, peti- 

Who deposed him ? "What government was established ? What of the siege 
of Paris ? Of the commune of Paris ? By whom was it besieged and vanquished ? 
What were the terms of peace with France ? Who was president of the republic ? 
How did he discharge the claims of Germany .-* Who is now ( 1883) president of 
the French republic? How did prince Louis Napoleon lose his life? § 124. 
What did the French revolution cause in Germany ? 



295 

tions and addresses, and on the part of the governments, different 
concessions, viz., dismission of hated ministers, calling of diets, and 
grants of new rights and Uberties. The king of Bavaria resigned 
the throne. The idea of a National Assembly also became public. 
The diet met it half way, summoning the German governments to 
order elections for a National Assembly. Meanwhile, a precon- 
certing parliament convened in Frankfort. They planned a central 
constitution by which all enactments not harmonizing with it should 
be null and void, and elected Archduke John of Austria regent of 
the empire. Germany should become a hereditary monarchy with 
a legislative assembly, comprising two houses, the house of the 
States, and a national one. A deputation of the assembly offered 
the imperial crown to the king of Prussia, upon condition of his 
accepting the new constitution, but he rejected the dignity offered 
him by the people. On the contrary, thousands (and among them 
even members of the National Assembly) demanded the estabhsh- 
ment of a German republic. The disunion of the deputies in- 
creased. Many left Frankfort of their own accord, or by order of 
their governments. When their number had considerably decreased , 
the rump parHament was transferred to Stuttgart, and as it here en- 
deavored to deprive the government of its power, the hall where it 
held its sessions was locked up (1849 A. D.) Afterwards the regent 
also resigned, and the old diet was revived. 

In Berlin, the people demanded the assembling of the States- 
General, unlimited freedom of the press, etc. The answer of the 
king not being satisfactory, scenes of bloodshed took place (since 
March 14th, 1848). King Frederic William IV., however, accorded 
all demands (March i8th); the people, masses of whom were 
assembled in front of the palace, received the news with enthusiasm. 
But immediately after this, troops made their appearance; they 
charged, with fixed bayonets, and fired upon the people. The 
whole city now rises in uproar ; the German liberty-flag appears ; 
citizens, students and workmen hasten to the combat ; barricades 

What concessions did the sovereigns make ? What idea became public i Who 
did it meet half way? What did the preconcerting parliament plan ? Who was 
chosen regent of the empire ? What did others demand ? What was the con- 
sequence of the disunion ? What of the rump-parliament in Stuttgart ? Of the 
regent ? Of the old diet ? What did the people of Berlin demand ? What 
answer did the king give ? What followed ? What did the former then accord ? 
Was he in earnest ? Give an account of the contest of the people against the 
troops. Who took part in the combat ? 



296 

are erected, and courageously defended. They shoot even from the 
roofs; the soldiers fire with grape-shot and bomb-shells; whole reg- 
iments are repelled. Deputies of the people beseech the king to 
withdraw the soldiers ; he refuses, and the contest is continued the 
whole night; the arsenal is assailed; a young workman, Gustavus 
Hesse, leads the bands, and the next day the people take the arse- 
nal. The king was compelled to remove the troops, and to accede 
to the abdication of the hereditary prince of Prussia, because he 
had ordered the attack of the troops. The prince left the country, 
but soon returned, and was even a member of the Prussian National 
Assembly, which met May 2 2d. Later, the king dissolved it, 
declared Berlin in a state of siege, and gave the kingdom a consti- 
tution according to his pleasure. 

In the grand-duchy of Baden a part of the people, led by 
Hecker, Struve and other valorous patriots, fought with the aim of 
establishing a republic (1848 A. D.); the grand-duke took to flight, 
and asked Prussia for help. The Prussians and other German 
troops then drew near, drove the army of the republicans south- 
ward and dispersed it. Many returned to their homes;- some thou- 
sands retired to Switzerland. The jails and casemates were filled 
with prisoners, many of whom were shot. These political afflic- 
tions, to which, in some countries, famine was added, induced thou- 
sands to emigrate to America. 

Schleswig and Holstein, the two southern duchies of Denmark, 
which had always been governed by the king of Denm.ark in his 
capacity of a prince of Germany, irritated by his endeavor to in- 
corporate them into his realm, resisted his enterprise, and solicited 
admission into the German confederation (184S A. D.) Assisted 
by Prussian and other German volunteers, they waged war against 
the Danish king. Afterwards they had to do the fighting alone, 
and finally to submit again to the king (1851 A. D.), because the 
German diet ordered them to do so. 

After his death. Christian IX. succeeded him on the throne 

What did the people beseech the king to do? What public building was as- 
sailed? Who was the leader of the assailants? With what success? What 
was the king compelled to do? Did he stand to his promise ? What of the 
prince ? How did the king later deal with Berlin and the kingdom i* What aim 
had the patriots in the State of Baden ? Whom did its ruler ask for help ? 
What of the republican army? What was the fate of the captives? Where did 
many emigrate to ? What duchies of Denmark did the king endeavor to incor- 
porate into his realm ? Who resisted him ? Assisted by whom ? W^hy had 
they to submit again to the king ? 



297 

(1863 A. D.); but his right of succession to the duchies of Hol- 
stein'^and Schleswig was contested by the duke of Augustenburg. 
Prussia and Austria, uniting in a common cause, went still further; . 
they marched a formidable army into Schleswig and compelled the 
king to cede the two alUes both duchies. Prussia then tried to m- 
duc^'e Austria to cede to her all her rights to the duchies. When the 
latter declared that the question of the duchies appertamed to the 
German diet, Prussia, with some other States, withdrew from the 
confederation, and occupied Holstein. Moreover, the lang of 
Prussia, in order to divide the forces of his rival, entered mto a 
secret alliance with the king of Italy, who cherished the idea of 
conquering Venetia. War was accordingly declared agamst Austria 
by the two alUed powers (June, 1866). But the Italians were de- 
feated, and compelled to retreat. Prussia fought with better suc- 
cess ; her troops entered Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony, and 
took possession of these States. At the same time she invaded the 
Austrian empire with about 300,000 men, in two armies— the one 
marching from Saxony, commanded by Prince Frederic Charles ; 
the other proceeding from Silesia, under the crown-prince of Prus- 
sia. Field-marshal Benedek, commander-in-chief of all the Aus- 
trian forces engaged in the north, ineffectually endeavored to pre- 
vent a junction of the two armies ; after which, the king of Prussia 
took the command in person. Benedek was compelled to accept 
a general engagement against the enemies, far superior in number, 
and to whom the needle-gun gave another decided advantage. 
The battle of Sadowa, after eight or ten hours of fearful struggle, 
terminated in the rout of the Austrians, with a loss of 40,000 men 
(July 3d). The campaign had only lasted seven days. The em- 
peror of Austria, unwilling to protract so disastrous a war, con- 
cluded the Treaty of Nicholsburg, by which he ceded Venetia to 
the king of Italy, abandoned all claim of forming a part of the con- 
federation, which the king of Prussia intended to organize on the 
north of the Maine river, a nd gave up Jiisjjghts_to^ e duchies of 
~ To whom was Christian IX. compelled '^^^ed^^hTd^chies ? " Whom would 
Prussia induce to cede them to her? Why did she withdraw from the German 
confederation ? What State did she occupy ? With whom did she enter mto a 
secret alliance? Against whom did the king of Italy wage war? With what 
success? What German States did Prussia occupy ? What empire did she in- 
vade ." Give an account of the campaign. From what countries did her armies 
make the invasion? What was the Austrian commander unable to prevent? 
How did he succeed in the battle ? How many men did he lose ? How long 
did the campaign last ? What were the conditions of peace ? 



298 

Holstein and Schleswig. The southern States of Germany later 
also joined the new confederation, and when the union of the dif- 
ferent States was accomplished, united Germany was a fit match for 
the contest with France, which broke out in 1870 (see France, 
§ 123). William, king of Prussia, returned from that war as emperor 
of Germany (1881 A. D.) This country was now supreme in cen- 
tral Europe. AVilliam's success was due to his able generals, and 
especially to his great prime minister. Prince Bismarck, whose polit- 
ical power was prevalent in Germany and in whole Europe. Since 
Bismarck has been at the helm of the German empire, however, he 
has endeavored to tread out every spark of liberty. They call him 
"the man of blood and iron." 

f 12g. Austria. Insurrection in Vienna. Reforms of 

the Government, War in Hungary. Kossuth. 

Gorgey Surrenders at Villagos. 

The news that the republic had been proclaimed in France also 
caused general excitement in Vienna. The students and citizens 
demanded from Emperor Ferdinand a free constitution, and espe- 
cially the reform of the public schools (March 12th, 1848). When 
the soldiers, on the next day, killed several persons, the infuriated 
people attacked the arsenal, the imperial palace, and several other 
buildings, and demanded the removal of Minister Metternich. As 
the latter resigned, the people expressed the greatest joy. When 
still more troops arrived, however, the national guard was organ- 
ized, and the students took to arms. The emperor granted more 
reforms. He accorded liberty of the press, promised to call a 
National Assembly, and to grant a free constitution. The tithes 
ought to be redeemed, etc. When the party of the court was 
threatening to again deprive the people of these grants, the latter, 
uttering menaces, demanded a diet for the purpose of framing a 
constitution. The emperor, indeed, conceded this also, but imme- 
diately left Vienna. Soon after the first Austrian diet began its ses- 
sions (2 2d of May). The order to dissolve and disarm the aca- 
demic legion caused the students to erect barricades, and to fight the 

AVhen did William become emperor of Germany ? To whom was his success 
due ? § 125. What did the citizens and students of Vienna demand from em- 
peror Ferdinand ? What did the people do when the soldiers killed several per- 
sons? What of Metternich? When was the national guard organized ? What 
did the emperor grant ? Did he stay in Vienna ? When did the diet begin its 
sessions ? Why did the students fight the soldiers ? 



.299 

soldiers behind them. Supported by the national guard, they pre- 
vailed, and the soldiers were obliged to retreat. Some troops being 
ordered to march against the Hungarians, a part of the soldiers 
opposed the command, and other soldiers were called to compel 
them to obey. Then soldiers were fighting in the city against 
soldiers, citizens against citizens. The arsenal was taken by assault, 
the Minister of War seized by the enraged multitude and hanged. 
Ferdinand, who meanwhile had returned to Vienna, left the city 
again, and sent Jellachich, the commander of the Croats, and. 
Prince Windischgratz with an army of 100,000 men, in order to sub- 
due the revolt by force. The city was bombarded from all sides, 
and a Hungarian army, which advanced for the rescue, dispersed. 
On the third day of the siege the city surrendered (Oct. 28th). 
Then Messenhauser, general of the national guard, the noble- 
minded Robert Blum, member of the German National Assembly, 
Avho took part in the combat as a volunteer, and others, were shot. 
Bem, general of the garrison, escaped. Vienna was declared in a 
state of siege, and the diet dissolved. Ferdinand resigned his 
crown. His successor was his nephew, Francis Joseph I., who 
almost entirely annulled the liberal constitution. 

In the other provinces of the empire insurrections also broke 
out, the people demanding everywhere constitutions in accordance 
with the spirit of the age. In Prague a parliament of all Slavonians 
assembled, deliberating by what means they could obtain political 
liberty. But it was dissolved after Windischgratz had overwhelmed 
the city in a bloody contest (June 13 and 14). 

In Hungary the diet aboHshed socage-service, decreed equal 
taxation, and demanded a more liberal constitution. The emperor 
granted it, especially their own ministry. Kossuth, the soul of 
these innovations, became minister of finance. After this the diet 
resolved to unite Transylvania with Hungary. The nation wanted 
to become independent from Austria. But the Slavonians, namely, 
Croats, Serbs, etc., pertaining to Hungaria, opposed the undertaking, 
and, instigated by the Austrian government, attacked the Hunga- 

Against whom should the troops march ? What consequence did the order 
cause ? Who left the city again ? Who was ordered to subdue it ? With what 
success? What was the fate of Messenhauser and Robert Blum? What of 
General Bem? What of Vienna and the diet? Who succeeded Ferdinand? 
What did his successor annul ? What of the other provinces ? Of Prague ? 
What did the diet in Hungary abolish? Who became minister of finance? 
Who opposed the resolution of the diet to allow Hungary to become independ- 
ent from Austria ? 



300- 

rians, Jellachich being their commander. A great Austrian army- 
supported them (1849 ^- I-*-) The Hungarians did not despair. 
Arms and ammunition were wanting, and their regular troops were 
still in Italy, fighting the battles of Austria. Manufactories of pow- 
der and arms arose as if by magic, and in every town the anvils 
rang with the clang of the arms which the artisans forged by day 
and by night. The peasantry, whom the constitution had elevated 
from the condition of serfs to that of freemen, rose en masse. All 
Hungarians were fighting with heroic courage. Gorgey, Bern, 
Dembinsky, Klapka, and other able generals, were at the head of 
their troops. Bem fought in Transylvania with such good success 
that the Russians had to be called; but he repelled them. In 
Hungary Dembinsky and other generals won several glorious victo- 
ries, and the Austrian armies were compelled to leave the country. 
The diet, declaring that the crown of Hungary was settled by stat- 
ute on the direct heirs of the house of Hapsburg, and moreover, 
that Francis Joseph had not taken the requisite oath to preserve 
inviolate the constitution, laws and liberties of the Hungarians, but 
demanded their unconditional submission, denied his right to rule 
over their nation, and proclaimed the country to be a republic 
(April, 1849). Kossuth became its governor. Now the emperor 
begged Russia for help, which was granted without delay. Paske- 
witsch was commander of the Russian troops, and the cruel Hay- 
nau, called "Hungary's hangman," commander-in-chief of both 
armies. Though the power of the allied armies was far superior to 
that of the Hungarians, the latter were not discouraged, continuing 
the contest with increased exertion. The cholera became their ally, 
destroying, together with other diseases, thousands of the enemies. 
But Gorgey, jealous of Kossuth's power, surrendered, immediately 
after having been nominated dictator, to the Russians at Villagos 
with 30,000 men and 140 cannons (Aug. 13, 1849). The public 
voice of his nation accused him of treachery. Hungary and Tran- 
sylvania were again overpowered by Austria; only Comorn was 
still bravely defended by Klapka; he surrendered the fortress only 

Who supported Jellachich ? Describe the efforts of the Hungarians. Who 
rose en masse ? What generals were- at the head of iheir armies ? With what 
success did Bem fight against the Russians ? What of Dembinsky ? Of the 
Austrian armies ? Why did the diet deny the right of the emperor to rule in 
Hungary ? What did they proclaim ? Who became governor ? For whose help 
did the emperor beg ? Who was general-in-chief ? How did the Hungarians 
contest? Who was their ally ? Who became dictator? How did he act? Of 
what was he accused ? What of Klapka ? 



301 

after having obtained favorable conditions for the garrison. The 
fate the vanquished ones had to suffer was terrible. On the 6th of 
October (1849 ^- ^■)> ^ '^^Y rendered forever memorable for infamy 
in the annals of Austria, thirteen generals and staff officers who had 
surrendered, were shot or hanged at Arad. Many ministers and 
other civil officials were also executed. An immense number of 
inferior officers were sent to fortresses to be imprisoned, and about 
70,000^ who had taken part in the contest, were forcibly enlisted in 
Austrian regiments. Kossuth and many others went to Turkey, 
and from there emigrated to America, where they found an asylum 
and kind support. 

§ 126. Italy. Revolutions of the Italian States. \AAar of 

Austria Against Sardinia and France. Battles 

at Magenta and Solferino. United 

Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi. 

In the kingdoms of Lombardy and Venice the people were op- 
pressed by heavy taxes. They also hated the government be- 
cause it was administered by foreigners. Some sentinels in Milan 
were killed through vengeance. When General Radetzky pro- 
claimed martial law, the wrath increased, and after the report of the 
French revolution, broke out in a revolt (March, 1848), by which 
the Austrians were compelled to withdraw from the city. The 
entire Lombardy rose in open insurrection and joined Sardinia, its 
king, Charles Albert, advancing to support the people. The pope 
and the king of Naples also afforded them aid. But the Austrians 
disarmed the Romans ; the king of Naples recalled his troops, and 
Charles Albert remained inactive. Radetzky gained a complete 
victory at Custozza, and soon after entered Milan. The land had 
again to submit to Austria. Charles once more tried the chance of 
arms, but was again vanquished, the campaign having lasted only 
four days. He abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and 
went to Portugal, where he died. Venice, which had proclaimed 
the "republic of St. Mark," also had to surrender to Marshal 
Radetzky. 

What fate did the vanquished suffer ? What of the executions at Ai-ad ? 
What of inferior ojffiicers ? How many were enlisted in Austrian regiments ? 
Where did Kossuth go to ? How was he received in America ? ^ 126. Why- 
did the inhabitants of Lombardy and Venice hate the Austrian government? 
What incidents caused the revolt? What was the effect of the example of the 
capital throughout the country? Who supported her? Was the success endur- 
ing ? Why not ? What of Radetzky ? Of Charles Albert ? Of Venice ? 



302 

Insurrections, at the beginning of 1848, also occurred in the 
other States of Italy ; the constitutions were amended ; the Jesuits 
everywhere removed; in Piedmont, besides, liberty of conscience was 
granted. Pope Pious IX., known for his liberal principles, proposed 
the plan of framing a confederation of the Italian States, and first 
effected several beneficial reforms; e.g., liberty of the press; but 
soon committed acts of a reactionary nature. After a while he lost 
the confidence of the Romans, who compelled him to flee and 
elected a National Assembly, which declared that the pope's tem- 
poral power was at an end, and framed a republican constitution. 
Mazzini, the chief of the "young Italy," and Garibaldi, a bold 
leader of a corps of volvmteers, were at the head of the govern- 
ment. But at the request of the pope, Austrian, Spanish, Neapol- 
itan and French troops soon drew near ; the French — to the shame 
of their repubhc — besieged Rome, took it by assault (1849 A. D.), 
and reinstated the pope, who since was the most determined sup- 
porter of absolutism. The king of Naples suppressed the insurrec- 
tions in Naples and Sicily (1848 A. D.), principally by aid of his 
Swiss guards, and then governed again with unlimited sway. 

The influence of Austria again became preponderant in Italy. 
She possessed the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, and all the secular 
princes of the peninsula were either Austrian archdukes, or faith- 
ful allies of Austria, excepting Victor Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia. 
The latter, trusting in the assistance of Napoleon III., and in his 
liberal minister, Cavour, resolved to -ruin the Austrian power in 
Italy. For some time he had been constantly arming for this 
object; the emperor of Austria demanded the cessation of these 
preparations, and his reclamations being unheeded, ordered his 
army to invade the Sardinian territory (1859 A. D.) Napoleon 
joined his army to that of the king, and placed himself at its head 
to direct the operations of the campaign. Then began a short but 
bloody war. The Austrians were defeated in two battles, at Magenta 
(June 4, 1859), and near Solferino (June 24th). The latter battle 

Of the other States of Italy ? Of the reforms of Pius IX.? Why did he 
lose the confidence of the Romans ? What was he compelled to do ? What did 
the Romans frame ? Who was at the head of the government .-' Who abolished 
it ? Who reinstated the pope? What of the king of Naples ? Who resolved to 
ruin the power of Austria in Italy ? Trusting in whom ? What did he do for 
this object? What did the emperor of Austria demand? What did he order 
his army to do ? What of Louis Napoleon ? Give an account of the war; of 
the battle at Solferino. 



303 

lasted from four o'clock in the morning till eight in the evening. 
At four o'clock in the afternoon, a hurricane swept over the two 
armies, compeUing them to suspend their bloody work, but the 
storm was hardly over, when the contest re-commenced with the 
same fury. At length the Austrians, who had entered the conflict 
with 220,000 men, were obliged to retreat. Napoleon ofifered a 
truce which was accepted, and after this the two emperors concluded 
peace, according to the terms of which the king of Sardinia obtained 
the Lombardy, and Napoleon, Savoy and the country of Nice. 

But these were not the only results of the Itahan war. The 
Austrian garrison had no sooner withdrawn from the papal territory 
than the Itahan revolutionists proclaimed Victor Emmanuel dictator, 
who united to his kingdom the greater part of the papal dominions, 
the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the grand-duchy of Tus- 
cany (i860 A. D.) The appeals of Pius IX. to the Cathohc powers 
were unheeded. The revolution continued its progress over other 
parts of Italy. Garibaldi, secretly assisted by England, landed in 
Sicily with 2,000 volunteers, and caused a revolt, which had just 
broken out in this island, to end in triumph. This being accom- 
plished, he re-crossed the sea to expel Francis II., king of the Two 
Sicilies, from his contmental possessions. Without striking a blow, 
he entered Naples (Sept. 7, i860). Then the army of Victor Emman- 
uel hastened to his assistance, Francis left his kingdom, and the 
first Italian parliament, composed of deputies from all Italy (except 
Venetia and what remained of the States of the church), assembled 
at Turin, and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy (1861 A. D.) 
Florence, later Rome (1870 A. D.) became the capital of the new 
government. The beneficial influence of the political reforms have 
since appeared in the public affairs of the nation. Twenty years 
ago eighty Italians in every hundred were unable to read or write. 
Now nearly one million sterling is expended for public instruction. 
The monasteries, in which 30,000 idle monks were fed, were abol- 
ished, and the greater part of their revenues devoted to general 
education. The industrial progress of free Italy has also been rapid. 

Who had to retreat ? What did Victor Emmanuel gain ? What Napoleon ? 
W'hat other States did the former unite to his kingdom ? Where did Garibaldi 
land ? What did he effect in Sicily and Naples ? Who hastened to his assist- 
ance ? Where did the farst parliament assemble ? Who was proclaimed king of 
Italy ? Which was the capital ? What beneficial results did the political re- 
forms exert in Italy ? ^^^^at of public instruction ? Of the monasteries ? Of 
industrial progress ? 



304 

Her exports, which formerly (1868 A. D.) were only twenty-two 
million sterling, had risen in seven years (1875 A. D.) to forty-two 
million. While Italy advanced in common with the progress of 
the age, the pope alone remained conservative. At his call, an 
ecumenical council convened in Rome which, according to his 
wish, declared him infallible in matters of faith (1869 A. D.) 

§ 127. Russia. Crimean \A/ar.' Siege of Sebastopol. 

Russo-Turkisli War. Surrender of tlie 

Turks at the Shipka Pass. 

The Russian czar, Nicholas, ill concealing his ambition under 
the plea of protecting the Greek subjects of the Ottoman empire^ 
declared war against the Turks, and invaded the Danubian prov- 
inces of the Turkish territory. The great powers in Europe, 
desiring to maintain the integrity of Turkey for the perservation of 
the European equilibrium, offered mediation; but their efforts not 
having succeeded, England, Sardinia and France (under Napoleon 
III.), aUied with the Sultan and began war against Russia (1854 
A. D.) They resolved to take possession of Sebastopol, which was 
the seat of the Russian power in the Crimean peninsula. Terrible 
was the attack by land and by sea ; equally terrible was the defense. 
The czar sent thither constant reinforcements ; the western powers 
did the same. The siege had lasted one year, when the latter fixed 
on the 8th of September, 1855, for a general assault. They opened 
it by a formidable bombardment, which Avas continued for four days 
and four nights ; then they, with astonishing courage, stormed the 
defenses of the enemy. Yet it Avas not till after six assaults had 
been made, that .the French succeeded in taking the Malakoff 
Tower, which was the principal defense of Sebastopol. Before 
retiring, Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian commander, completed 
the sinking of his fleet, and blew up that part of the town which he 
was compelled to abandon ; then he intrenched himself in the north- 
ern part of Sebastopol, where he continued for some time to make 
a desperate resistance, but finally he retreated. Sebastopol by this 
time had become a heap of ruins. Then the Treaty of Paris fol- 
lowed (March 30, 1856), by which the Sultan confirmed the ancient 

How did the exports improve ? Did the pope also advance with the progress 
of the ageV What of the synod held in Rome? ^127. Against vi^hom did 
Nicholas of Russia declare war ? Who allied with the Sultan ? What city did 
the allies besiege ? How long did the siege last ? Give a description of it, and 
of the storming of the city. Mention some conditions of the peace. Whose privi- 
leges were confirmed by the Sultan ? 



305 

privileges of his Christian subjects; Russia renounced all protec- 
torate rights over the Danubian provinces ; the navigation of the 
Danube was declared free; the Black Sea, of which Russia had 
been the sole mistress, became neutral, and was interdicted to any 
vessel of war. 

The first great reform of Alexander II., who had signed the 
treaty of Paris, was the abolishment of serfdom, which created four- 
teen millions of new, free citizens, the mainstay of Russia's agricul- 
ture. Corporal punishment was also abolished ; the judicial power 
separated from the administrative, and founded on trial by jury ; 
the term of military service lessened, and Hberty of the press and 
publications enlarged. But, on the other hand, he suppressed the in- 
surrection in Poland (1863-1864 A. D.) with extreme severity. True, 
the Russian peasant can no longer be beaten or sold by a master' 
but his attitude to the great lord of his district is still utterly slavish! 
Of the schoolmaster he knows nothing.— In point of extent Russia 
is_ the largest dominion in the world. The subjects of the czar 
number 85,000,000. Pie is, in the fullest sense of the word, an 
absolute monarch. All power— legislative, executive, judicial 'and 
ecclesiastical — centers in him. He is the law of Russia. 

The oppression of the Turkish subjects in Bosnia, Herzegovina 
and Bulgaria urged these provinces to rise against the sultan (1875- 
1876 A. D.) Bulgaria was now the scene of atrocities scarcely par- 
alleled in modern Europe. Christian villages were burned down 
and their inhabitants slaughtered by thousands. Women, htde 
children and unoffending old men perished under nameless tor- 
tures. A vain attempt was made, by a conference of the great 
powers, to bring the stubborn sultan to reason; he -would not 
yield to counsel. Russia then declared war, sending her armies 
over the Balkans, where they occupied the Shipka Pass (1877 
A. D.) But they were driven back, and Osman Pasha led an 
army to Plevna, a Roumanian town. For five months the con- 

What protectorate did Russia renounce ? What of the navigation of the Danube 
and of the Black Sea ? What reforms did Alexander 11. accomplish in Russia ? 
How many peasants did he set free? What punishment did he abrogate? 
What of judicial power? Of trial by jury ? Of military service? Of liberty 
of the press ? How did he deal with Poland ? Is the Russian peasant indeed 
free ? How many subjects are under the dominion of the czar ? Why is he 
called the most absolute monarch? How were the Turkish subjects in Bul- 
garia, etc., treated ? Delineate their treatment. To whose counsel would the 
sultan not yield ? Who waged war against him ? What of Plevna ? 

(20) 



306 

test centered in this little town. Todleben, the Russian general, 
drew heavy masses of troops around it, and starved the enemies. 
Osman endured the siege till Plevna was a charnel-house, then 
endeavored to break through the encircling lines; but over- 
matched and surrounded, he had to lay down his arms. The 
flower of the Turkish army was lost. A few weeks after the fall of 
Plevna three Russian armies were led across the Balkans (1878 A. 
D.) The difficulty of the march was extreme. The roads were 
slippery with ice, often almost impassable on account of deep snow. 
Many men perished from intense cold. Still the Russians made 
their way into Rumelia, and striking the rear of the Turkish army 
which guarded the outlet from the Shipka Pass, compelled its sur- 
render. Twenty thousand men laid down their arms. The victo- 
rious Russians advanced quickly to Adrianople, and the sultan 
begged for terms of peace, which he was granted on these condi- 
tions: To the north of the Balkans, Bulgaria was raised into a 
principality, paying a tribute ; to the south of them, the province 
of Eastern Rumelia was formed, to be ruled by a Christian governor- 
general ; and Montenegro, Roumania and Servia received their inde- 
pendence. Bosnia and Herzegovina were made over to Austria. 
Russia took back Bessarabia, and received also some Turkish cities 
in Asia. — The treaty was submitted by Russia to the congress of the 
European powers, held in Berlin, Prince Bismarck presiding (1878 
A. D.) The sultan lost over four million subjects by this war. — 
Alexander I. was assassinated by the Nihilists (1881 A. D.) 

^ 128. America. Secession War in the United States. 
Abraham Lincoln. 

When two. new territories were organized in Kansas and Ne- 
braska, the congress resolved that these territories were to decide for 
themselves whether they would have slaves or not. This law led to 
civil war in Kansas. The slavery question had already divided the 

How long did the contest last in the town ? Who were the leaders of the 
two armies ? Who was successful ? What loss did Osman suffer ? Describe 
the difficulties of the march of the Russian armies across the Balkans. How 
many Turks surrendered ? How far did the Russians advance ? Mention some 
conditions of the peace. To what congress was the treaty submitted ? How many 
subjects did the sultan lose by this war ? What of the end of Alexander I. ? 
^ 128. What did congress leave to the settlers to decide in Kansas and 
Nebraska ? What followed this law ? When had the slavery question already 
divided the nation ? 



307 

nation when the constitution was framed, and finally caused one of 
the bloodiest civil wars. In the Declaration of Independence thfe 
principles were proclaimed that " all men are created equal ; that 
they are endowed by their creator with certain inaHenable rights, 
and that among these are Hfe, hberty and the pursuit of happiness." 
According to these principles the Anti-Slavery Society was organ- 
ized (1S33 A. D.), which held that all slave laws, before God, were 
utterly null and void. W. Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips 
presided over the society. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise 
(see § 116) caused the formation of a new party, called the Repub- 
lican party, the principal doctrine of which was opposition to the 
extension of slavery. John Brown, an enthusiastic enemy of 
slavery, who had taken an active part in the warfare in Kansas, 
formed the plan to liberate the Southern slaves. With but twenty- 
one followers he seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 
Virginia (1859 A. D.) He was seized, together with six of his 
associates. They were tried and hanged. — The RepubUcans elected 
Abraham Lincoln president (i860 A. D.) The seven slave-holding 
States— South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, 
Louisiana and Texas, which were soon joined by the States of Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas, North CaroHna and Tennessee, formed themselves 
into a separate confederacy, asserting that they had a perfect right 
to withdraw at pleasure from the Union, and elected Jefferson 
Davis president and Alexander Stephens vice-president. South 
Carolina headed the secession. The confederates, moreover, seized 
most of the forts and arsenals of the United States within their 
boundaries. Major Anderson, having refused to deUver up Fort 
Sumter, in Charleston harbor, was attacked by the confederate bat- 
teries under the command of Gen. Beauregard (April 12th, 186 1), 
and surrendered after a day's fighting. At this signal of war 
the president issued a proclamation ordering 75,000 men into the 
field for the defense of the Union (April 14th). A large army was 

What did it cause ? What principles are proclaimed in the Declaration of 
Independence ? What society was organized according to these principles ? 
Who presided over the society ? What repeal caused the formation of the Re- 
publican party ? What was the principal doctrine of this party ? Give an account 
of John Brown's attempt to liberate the slaves. Whom did the Republicans 
elect president ? What States formed a separate confederacy? What did they 
assert ? Whom did they elect president ? Whom vice-president ? What State 
headed the secession ? What did the confederates seize? Who defended Fort 
Sumter ? To whom did Anderson surrender ? What proclamation did Presi- 
dent Lincoln issue ? When ? 



308 

collected around Washington, under the veteran Gen. Scott. The 
firsfbloodshed occurred in Baltimore (April 19), when a mob attacked 
a body of troops passing through that city to the 'defense of Wash- 
ington, and killed two Massachusetts men. 

In July, Gen. McDowell, having command of the federal 
force assembled around Washmgton, began to march upon Rich- 
mond, which had lately become the capital of the confederates. 
He soon encountered a portion of the confederate troops, under 
the command of Gen. Beauregard, at a Httle creek named Bull 
Run. First the Union soldiers were victorious, but, in the after- 
noon, the confederates, reinforced by J. E. Johnston's column from 
the Shenandoah valley, defeated them (July 21;. Congress imme- 
diately levied an army of volunteers which, at the beginning of the 
year 1862, exceeded 450,000 men. Two hundred thousand of 
them were near Washington, under Gen. McClellan, Gen. Scott 
having retired. Gen. Halleck was commander-in-chief of the 
Western department. The confederate congress passed an act 
of conscription, which declared every male inhabitant (with a 
few exceptions) between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five years, a 
soldier. In the fall of 1861 (October 21) Gen. Banks tried to 
effect a passage of federal troops across the Potomac river at 
Ball's Bluff, but the affair was a failure. Gen. Nathaniel Lyon, 
in Missouri, really saved the State by securing the arsenal at St. 
Louis (in May, 1861); he fell when he attacked the rebels at Wil- 
son's Creek (August loth). Col. Sigel won a battle at Carthage, 
Missouri (July 5th), but was compelled to fall back. Mason and 
Slidell, two confederate commissioners to the British government, 
were seized by Capt. Wilkes from an English maiUsteamer and 
carried to Fort Warren (November 8th). The British government 
demanded their surrender, beginning preparations for war. But war 
was avoided, as the United States government gave them up. 

Towards the middle of March, 1862, Gen. McClellan, now 
commander of the army of the Potomac, landed it at Fortress Mon- 

What was collected at Washington ? Undei- whose command ? Where was 
the first bloodshed ? Give an account of the battle at Bull Run. Who com- 
manded the Union army ? Who the confederates ? What of Johnston's 
column ? How many volunteers did congress levy ? What act did the confed- 
erate congress pass ? What encounter had Gen. Banks with the rebels in the 
fallof 1861? How did he succeed? What general saved Missouri? Where 
did he die ? Give a detail of the peninsula campaign. Who was commander of 
the Union army? 



309 

roe and began to advance from that point towards Richmond. 
The confederate works before Yorktown resisted his march, and, 
after one month, Gen. Johnston evacuated the place. In spite of 
new obstacles, McClellan approached within a few miles of Rich- 
mond. But the enemy had by this time received large reinforce- 
ments, while his own army had been greatly reduced by losses 
during the campaign, and by sickness on the banks of the Chicka- 
hominy. Seeing himself pressed by superior numbers, he was com- 
pelled to retreat. For six days the confederates harassed his march 
by continual attacks, known as the " seven days' batdes " (from 
June 25 to July i); but the successful stand which he made at 
Malvern Hill (July i), checked all further aggressive demonstra- 
tions against him, and ended the peninsular campaign. The presi- 
dent now called for 600,000 troops, and soon after ordered that 
300,000 of these should be raised by draft, to serve for nine months. 
Gen. Halleck became commander-in-chief. 

The success of the confederate government in that campaign 
induced them to invade the Union territory, in order to strike some 
important blow. In vain did Gen. Pope oppose the invading army, 
under Gen. Lee ; he was compelled to retreat, and was severely 
defeated at the second battle at Bull Run (August 30). McClellan, 
now recalled from Virginia, advanced with all the forces that were 
not required for the defense of Washington, to stop the overwhelm- 
ing march of the confederates. He met them at the great battle at 
Antietam, in Maryland. Each army numbered, it is said, a hun- 
dred thousand men (September 17). The combat raged all day, 
till night put an end to it. McClellan obtained a decided success, 
and Gen. Lee hastily withdrew his forces across the Potomac, retir- 
ing into Virginia. The Union army did nothing till November; 
then McClellan was ordered to dehver up the command of the 
army of the Potomac to Gen. Ambrose Burnside, who immediately 
took measures for a new advance upon Richmond. The march to 
that city was to be made by the route through Fredericksburg. 

To what city did he advance ? By what, causes was he compelled to retreat ? 
Where did he make a successful stand ? For how many more troops did the 
president call ? How many should be raised by draft ? For how many months ? 
Who became commander-in-chief? Who invaded the Union territory? Who 
was defeated in the second battle at Bull Run? In what battle did McClellan 
meet the confederates ? How many men did the armies number ? Who was 
defeated? Who succeeded McClellan in the command? By what route did 
Gen. Burnside intend to advance to Richmond ? 



310 

Lee occupied the town with a part of his forces, and concentrated 
the rest on the heights in the rear of the town. When the Union 
army attacked it, no greater opposition was made than was suffi- 
cient to allure the Union soldiers to push forward. But as soon as 
the Union army tried to storm the enemy's works on the heights, it 
was received with such a fire of infantry and artillery that Gen. 
Burnside gave up the attack (December 13). 

During this year (186.2 A. D.) military movements m the west 
were numerous and important. In January, Gen. Thomas won a 
brilliant victory at Mill Springs, where the rebel Gen. Zollicoffer 
was killed. In February Gen. Grant, aided by Commodore Foote 
Avith his gun-boats, captured Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, 
and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland — the latter place with 13,000 
men. These federal successes obliged the rebels to withdraw from 
Kentucky. Within two months of this brilliant affair, while Grant's 
army lay encamped at Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), awaiting a federal 
corps under Gen. Buell, Generals Beauregard and A. S. Johnston 
attacked Grant, rendering themselves master of a part of his camp. 
But Johnston was killed in the contest, and during the afternoon 
Buell's army came up, so that the confederates, on the next day, 
were compelled to give way and retreat (April 6-7). The rebels 
retreated to Corinth, Miss., where they were besieged by Gen. 
Halleck ; after severe fighting, they evacuated the place. When 
Gen. Halleck was made general-in-chief, Gen. Grant took com- 
mand of the army of the Tennessee. Gen. Price made a vigorous 
attempt to drive him from Corinth, but was defeated by Gen. Rose- 
crans in the battle of luka. At Pea Ridge, Arkansas, the confed- 
erates were defeated by Generals Curtis and Sigel after three days' 
fighting (March 8th); Columbus, Kentucky, was abandoned early in 
the year by the rebels, who then fortified Island No. 10, in the Mis- 
sissippi. Gen. Pope co-operated with Commodore Foote for its 
capture. After twenty-three days' bombardment the rebels with- 
drew, but Pope cut off their retreat, taking many prisoners. Flag- 
Where was he vanquished ? Describe the battle. Where were the forces of 
Gen. Lee concentrated ? How was the Union army received on the heights of 
the town ? What forts were taken by Grant and Foote ? With how many 
prisoners ? From what State were the confederates obliged to withdraw ? Give 
an account of the battle of Shiloh. Where did the rebels retreat to ? Who be- 
sieged them ? Who, after Halleck, took command of the army of the Tennessee ? 
Who defeated Gen. Price ? Who defeated the confederates at Pea Ridge ? 
What town of Kentucky did they abandon ? What island did they then fortify t 
Who captured it ? 



311 

officer David Farragut was sent to the Gulf in command of a squad- 
ron, designed to co-operate with the land forces under Gen. Butler 
for the capture of New Orleans. Forts Jackson and St. Phihp, 
below the city, having been in vain bombarded for six days, Far- 
ragut ran past the forts with part of his fleet, destroyed the rebel 
fleet above, and reached the city (April 25th). The forts surrendered 
to Commander D. D. Porter, and Butler took command m New 
Orleans. At the end of the year Gen. Rosecrans gave battle to 
Bragg at Murfreesboro (Stone River), in Tennessee, and defeated 
him (Dec. 31, 1862, Jan. i and 2, 1863); both armies suff-ered a 

heavy loss. 

The most important naval combat during the year 1862 was 
waged between the Merrimac and Monitor, m Hampton Roads. 
The Merrimac was a confederate iron-clad war-vessel, which 
destroyed a sloop-of-war and a frigate of the Union (the Cumberland 
and the Congress). But during the night the Monitor, a peculiar 
iron-clad war-ship, constructed by Captain Ericsson, arrived from 
New York, and in the morning attacked the Merrimac, which, after 
a fierce fight, was badly damaged and compelled to retire to Norfolk. 
During this year immense havoc was committed on the commerce 
of the North by the Florida and Alabama, two privateers built in 
England, which were permitted by the British government to pass 
into the service of the confederates. The latter, commanded by 
Captain Semmes, was two years after attacked and sunk by the 
Kearsarge, Captain Winslow, in the harbor of Cherbourg, France. 
After the war, America called upon England to indemnify her for the 
loss suff-ered from these cruisers. Commissioners of arbitration 
were chosen, to whom America submitted her claims. The judges 
ordained that England should pay three milhon sterling as a suitable 
indemnity for the evil which she had wrongfully permitted.— West 

Virginia was admitted to the Uni on in 1862. 

Who was sent to capture New Orleans ? What forts did Farragut bombard ? 
Give an account of the naval battle on the Mississippi. To whom did the forts 
surrender^ Who took command m New Orleans? Who fought the battle of 
Murfreesboro? Who was defeated? Give the details of the naval combat be- 
tween the Merrimac and Monitor. What kind of war- vessels were they ? What 
cruisers caused serious damage to the commerce of the North ? Where had 
they been built ? Where and by whom was the Alabama sunk ? How were the 
claims of America against England adjusted after the war? How much mdem- 
nity did England pay ? What new State was admitted into the Union ? 



312 

I 129. Continued. Emancipation of the Slaves. Battle 

at Gettysburg. Surrender of Vieksburg 

and Port Hudson. 

In 1862, slavery in the District of Columbia had been abolished 
by congress, and forever prohibited in the territories of the republic. 
Congress, induced to do so by the president, had also, in the same 
year, offered a fair compensation to the slave States for the manu- 
mission of their slaves. But none were wise enough to accept the 
offer. Moreover, the president had warned them betime to re- 
turn into the Union, proclaiming that, in case of reluctance, he 
would declare their slaves free ; but they did not heed this warning. 
Therefore, on New Year's day of 1863, he issued the Emancipation 
Proclamation which declared free all the slaves within the borders of 
the Confederate States. Their number amounted to four millions. 
Henceforth, the freedmen vigorously supported the cause of the 
Union. Within six months there were 50,000 colored troops in the 
Union armies, within another year 150,000, notwithstanding the 
rebel congress decreed that all white officers of such troops should 
suffer death if captured, and some privates who were taken were 
instantly shot. In March the Conscription Act became a law, and 
the preparations made to enforce it caused great excitement. In 
New York City the commencement of the draft was followed by a 
riot in which a great amount of property was destroyed, and many 
persons, chiefly negroes, were killed. 

The next advance upon Richmond was undertaken by Gen. 
Hooker, who had succeeded Gen. Burnside in command, but he 
was entirely defeated at Chancellorsville, Virginia, with a loss of 
18,000 men (May 2 and 3, 1863). The confederates lost their 
brave and favorite general, Stonewall Jackson. After this battle. 
Gen. Lee marched through Maryland into Pennsylvania, and 
■concentrated his forces at Gettysburg. Here he was met by Gen. 
Meade, who encamped his troops on a hill-slope. This action, the 

§129. Where was slavery abolished in 1862? Where prohibited? What 
did congress offer to the slave States ? With what effect ? What warning did 
the president proclaim to them ? What proclamation did President Lincoln 
issue on the first of January, 1863 ? Wfiat was the number of slaves ? How 
did they prove their gratitude? How many of them, within six months, were in 
the Union army ? How many within another year ? What did the rebel con- 
gress decree ? What did the Conscription Act cause ? Where did a riot occur ? 
Who undertook the next advance upon Richmond ? How did Gen. Hooker suc- 
ceed ? Mention the circumstances of the battle at Gettysburg. 



313 

greatest of the war, lasted three days (July i, 2 and 3). All attacks 
of Gen. Lee were repulsed, and he was compelled, after having lost 
30,000 men, to retreat into Virginia with the remnants of his army. 

Two other heavy blows were at the same time inflicted upon the 
confederates. Thus far the navigation of the Mississippi river had 
remained closed between Port Hudson (Louisiana) and Vicksburg 
(Mississippi). Gen. Grant, with the design of opening the river 
entirely, undertook an expedition against Vicksburg. But the 
approach to this place proved most difficult, owing to its position, 
and the efforts of the enemy, under Gen. J. E. Johnston, to retain 
the key of the great river. A previous attempt to cut a new chan- 
nel for the river, which should leave Vicksburg inland, had failed, 
as did also another to get in its rear by the Yazoo river. Gen. 
Grant now ran the transports past the batteries during the night 
(April 22), then marched the army down the west side of the Mis- 
sissippi far below Vicksburg, crossed it to Grand Gulf, and from 
there advanced on the rear of Vicksburg. During this movement 
he met and defeated the confederates under Pemberton in five 
actions. The latter then retired to his works in Vicksburg, and 
Grant laid siege to it, which lasted six weeks. The garrison, num- 
bering over 30,000 men, made a gallant defense ; but their provis- 
ions becoming very scarce, and no hope remaining of receiving 
relief, they surrendered (July 4). The surrender of Vicksburg was 
followed by that of Port Hudson. The capture of these two 
strongholds of the confederates opened the Mississippi to naviga- 
tion and commerce, and broke up their communication between the 
States west and east of that river. 

After the battle at Murfreesboro, Gen. Rosecrans remained there 
until June, when he drove the confederates, under Gen. Bragg, 
across the Cumberland Mountains to Chattanooga, Ga., where the 
latter was reinforced by Generals Longstreet and Johnston, with 
many paroled men from Vicksburg. Rosecrans was defeated by 

How long did it last ? How many men did Gen. Lee lose ? Where did he 
then retreat to ? What two other blows were inflicted upon the confederates ? 
Why was the approach to Vicksburg difficult ? What previous attempts failed ? 
Give the narrative of the siege and capture of Vicksburg. By what maneuver 
■did Gen. Grant get into the rear of Vicksburg ? How many times during his 
movement did he defeat Pemberton? Why did the latter surrender? With 
how many soldiers ? What other harbor was then captured ? What advantages 
did the Union gain by the capture of the two places ? Where did Rosecrans 
drive Gen. Bragg after the battle at Murfreesboro ? By whom was Bragg rein- 
forced ? 



314 

Bragg in the great battle of Chickamauga, a few miles south of 
Chattanooga, but Gen. Thomas, who commanded the Union left, 
repulsed all attacks of the enemies, and fought so stubbornly that 
the army was able to retire and fortify itself in Chattanooga. Here 
it was shut up by Bragg, and nearly starved out. But Grant, joined 
by Sherman, raised the siege by a battle lasting three days (Nov. 
23-25). The confederates Avere attacked at Lookout Mountain 
and on Missionary Ridge, and completely defeated. At the same 
time Gen. Burnside was struggling for the possession of East Ten- 
nessee, being besieged at Knoxville by Longstreet, who had moved 
northward after the battle of Chickamauga. But Sherman hastened 
to his relief from Chattanooga, and Longstreet, raising the siege 
(Dec. 3), rejoined Lee in Virginia. In the same year almost the 
whole State of Arkansas was restored to the federal government. — 
Two more marked exploits of the navy were the capture of the 
" Nashville" by the " Montauk," and of the ram " Atlanta" by the 
" Weehawken," both on the coast of Georgia. 

The main campaigns for 1864 were to be made by the armies of 
the Potomac and of Chattanooga. Grant, now made lieutenant- 
general, who superintended in person the army of the Potomac, 
met the confederates in the stubborn and bloody combat of the 
Wilderness, which lasted about three days, without decided victory 
on either side (May 4-6). He then effected several flank move- 
ments which, after six weeks, brought him before Petersburg, the 
key to the capital. The Union army, in this movement, lost 60,000 
men. Lee took his stand between Petersburg and Richmond, occu- 
pying an extended line of about thirty miles. Grant then settled 
down to a long siege, in order to " wear out " the confederates 
(from June, 1864, to April, 1865). Several assaults were made on 
Petersburg, but repulsed. A tremendous mine of powder, which 
had been run under one of the confederate forts before the town, 
was fired, carrying the earthwork into the air (July 30). A storm- 
Where did he defeat Rosecrans ? What general effected the safe retreat of 
the latter ? Where was Rosecrans then shut up ? Who relieved him ? By 
what battle ? How long did it last? Where was Burnside besieged? Who 
hastened to his relief ? What State was mostly restored to the Union ? Men- 
tion two further exploits of the navy. What armies had to make the main cam- 
paigns in 1864 ? Who was now Lieutenant-General ? What of the battle of the 
Wilderness ? How many days did it last ? What movements brought Grant be- 
fore Petersburg ? How many men were killed ? Where did Lee take his 
stand ? What operation did Grant resolve upon ? What of the assaults on 
Petersburg ? Of the great mine of powder ? 



315 

ing column then advanced to press through to Petersburg, but the 
troops were repulsed with great slaughter. At this time, while 
Grant stopped before Petersburg, Lee sent Gen. Early with a col- 
umn to threaten and, if possible, to capture Washington. Early- 
advanced to the works around the capital, but finding them stronger 
than had been expected, he returned to Virginia. He took with 
him great booty from Maryland and Pennsylvania. After this, 
Sheridan, general of the cavalry, and commander in the Shenan- 
doah valley, defeated the confederates in the battle of Winchester 
(September 19). At Cedar Creek his army (he being absent), was 
routed ; after retreating some miles a stand was again made. Sheri- 
dan arrived, and late in the day, in turn routed the enemies. ' 

I ISO. Concluded. Sherman's March to the Sea. Sur- 
render of Richmond and of the Confederate 
Army. Lincoln Assassinated. Amend- 
ment of the Constitution. Free 
Homestead Bill. 

Gen. Sherman's army at Chattanooga was put in motion (May 
5th), towards Atlanta, distant 140 miles. This whole route was 
contested -by Johnston in a series of battles, among which the most 
severe were at Resaca and around Dallas and Kenesaw Mountain. 
By the middle of July, Sherman's army was before Atlanta, where 
. furious fighting occurred on the 20th, 2 2d and 28th. Gen. 
McPherson was killed here. Gen. Hood, who had superseded 
Johnston, withdrew from the city (Sept. i), and Sherman at once 
occupied this important town, being the center of railroad com- 
munication between the Western and the Atlantic and Gulf States. 
Hood, by seizing Sherman's line of suppUes, compelled the army to 
fall back. Sherman, after following Hood some distance, sent Gen. 
Thomas with a large force to oppose Hood, while he himself 
returned to Atlanta ; he burned the town, and then set out on his 
remarkable " March to the Sea," through Georgia. The confed- 
erates had no army that could offer any serious resistance. Sher- 



Whom did Lee send towards Washington ? Wherefore ? Did Early suc- 
ceed ? In what battle was Sheridan victorious ? What of the battle of Cedar 
Creek? § 130. Where did Sherman's army move in May, 1864.'' Who con- 
tested the route ? In what battles ? Before what town did furious fighting oc- 
cur ? What genera] was killed ? Who withdrew ? Why was Atlanta an import- 
, ant town ? Why was Sherman compelled to fall back ? Whom did he send 
against Hood ? Where did he return to ? 



316 

man, on his march, destroyed their supphes, depriving them, by this 
stratagem, of the means of sustaining their armies. Five weeks 
after his departure from Atlanta he reached the sea, and carried 
Fort McAlhster by assauk (Dec. 13); Savannah surrendered eight 
days later (Dec. 21). This done, the Union army was in communi- 
cation with the Union fleet off the coast. 

Meantmie Gen. Hood, tempted by Sherman's withdrawal from 
Atlanta, attacked Schofield at Franklin, Tenn., and after a severe 
battle (November 3d) forced him to retreat to Nashville, which place 
Hood then besieged; but Thomas, concentrating his forces here, 
suddenly attacked him, drove him from his entrenchment and com- 
pletely routed him (December 15-16). Hood had to retreat, and 
being pursued by the victor, his army was nearly destroyed. 

Other operations during the year 1864, not directly connected 
with the two main campaigns, were : 

First: Gen. Banks, in March, led an expedition from New 
Orleans into the Red River country, Louisiana. Two actions were 
fought — the first, Sabine Cross Roads (April 8th), being a confederate 
victory, and the second, Pleasant Hill, indecisive. The expedition 
was given up. 

Second : In February, Gen. Sherman, before he went to Chat- 
tanooga, made an expedition from Vicksburg, during Avhich the 
rebel Gen. Forrest defeated his cavalry column and captured Fort 
Pillow, where he most cruelly massacred a number of negroes who 
composed the garrison. Generally, cruelty was the anirqating spirit 
of the rebellion, and its prison discipline at Anderson, Salisbury, 
and other places where Union soldiers were held, was a rigidly 
observed policy of delivering to death the greatest number in the 
briefest time, and by the most barbarous measures. The confeder- 
ates, in the treatment of their prisoners, outdid the cruelty of 
Indian warfare. 

In July, Admiral Farragut, with a powerful fleet and land force 
was sent against Mobile ; he succeeded in running the batteries of 
the forts in the harbor with the loss of but one vessel ; he attacked the 

Give an account of his march to the sea. What stratagem did he carry out ? 
What was his success ? Whom did Gen. Hood attack ? Where did Schofield 
retreat to ? Who vanquished Hood here ? What of the expedition of Gen. 
Banks ? Who defeated the cavalry column of Gen. Sherman ? How^ did For- 
rest deal with the negroes in Fort Pillow ? In general, how did the confeder- 
ates deal with their prisoners at Andei'son, Salisbury and other places ? De- 
scribe the action of Admiral Farragut against Mobile. 



317 

rebel fleet, destroying among other vessels the " Tennessee," the 
most formidable ram ever fitted out by the confederates. Aided by 
the land forces of Gen. Granger, he took the forts and secured pos- 
session of Mobile Bay. The city surrendered in the next spring 
(1865). Another confederate stronghold, Fort Fisher, North Car- 
olina, which commanded the entrance to the port of Wilmington, 
was attacked by Admiral Porter and Gen. Butler (in December), 
without success; but the following month Gen. Terry assaulted 
and captured it (Jan. 15, 1863). In the fall of 1864, Abraham 
Lincoln was re-elected president, the candidate of the Democratic 
party being General McClellan. 

The field of decisive operations was now reduced to the States of 
North and South Carolina and Virginia. During the winter Gen. 
Sherman overran the Carolinas with his victorious army, and thereby 
cut ofi" the resources of Gen. Lee. He found nothing to oppose his 
march in order to join Grant, except a small confederate force which 
Gen. J. E. Johnston had hastily gathered together. The first point 
to which Sherman marched was Columbia, S. C, which he captured 
and burned (February 17th). This move compelled the confeder- 
ates to evacuate Charleston (February 17th). Near Averysboro, 
N. C, he defeated a confederate force, and at Bentonville fought 
a successful battle against Johnston. On March 23d he entered 
Goldsboro, where he was joined by forces under Generals Schofield 
and Terry. 

In Virginia Gen. Grant, in the -spring of 1865, renewed active 
operations against Petersburg. Attacks on the rebel works were 
made daily, with heavy losses on both sides. Sheridan, with his 
cavalry, rode through the Shenandoah valley, capturing most of the 
remnants of Early's force, destroyed the canal at the James nver, 
tore up the railroads, and joined Gen. Grant (March 26). On the 
ist of April the decisive battle was fought at Five Forks, in which 
Sheridan broke through the; rebel forces, and thereby decided the 
contest for Richmond. An attack was then made along the whole 

What did lie destroy, and what take ? When did the city surrender ? By 
whom was Fort Fisher attacked ? By whom captured ? What States did Gen. 
Sherman overrun in the winter of 1864-1865 ? What did he thereby cut off? 
What general opposed him on his march ? What towns did he take ? Where 
did he defeat Johnston ? What of Gen. Grant in Virginia ? Of Sheridan ? 
Whom did he join ? When was the decisive battle fought ? Who broke through 
the rebel forces ? Where was an attack made on the 2d of April ? What was 
the result ? 



318 

line of works in front of Petersburg, and the line carried at several 
points (April 2). During the night Lee abandoned Petersburg and 
Richmond, which were entered by the Union army the next day 
(April 3). Lee retreated, hoping to join Johnston in North Caro- 
lina. A hot pursuit was immediately begun by Grant. The con- 
federate army was completely surrounded at Appomattox Court 
House, and here Lee surrendered (April 9). Gen. Johnston, hear- 
ing the news of Lee's yielding, also surrendered (April 26). By the 
end of May all the confederate forces had surrendered, and the 
civil war was at an end. 

The news of this happy event occasioned the greatest joy 
throughout the country, but it was soon changed into deep mourn- 
ing, for Lincoln was assassinated in the theater at Washington, 
where he was shot in the head (14th of April), and he died in a few 
hours. His murderer was the actor John Wilkes Booth. On the 
same night Secretary Seward was dangerously stabbed by another 
ruffian, in his own house, while lying ill in bed. — Mr, Lincoln was 
an honest, clear-headed, and large-hearted man. His wise and 
firm administration of affairs in such perilous and difficult times had 
won for him a high respect and love. He was carried to his grave 
amid the tears of a nation, which will keep his memory equally 
sacred with that of Washington. — The assassin fled into Maryland, 
where he was shot by one of his pursuers. Booth, and the assail- 
ants of Mr. Seward, were members of a band of conspirators, of 
whom several were afterwards hanged. — Jefferson Davis was cap- 
tured, then kept in prison for a time, and finally Hberated. — If is 
stated that in the civil war on both sides over one million of men 
were either killed or wounded. The national debt, at the end of 
the war, was about $2,800,000,000, of which thus far over one-third 
has been paid off. — It is worthy of notice that the United States gov- 
ernment did not make foreign loans, a market for its notes and 
bonds being found at home, chiefly among the loyal people of the 

What of Gen. Lee ? Where did he retreat to ? Where was his army sur- 
rounded ? What was the effect of it ? What of Gen. Johnston ? Where and 
when was President Lincoln assassinated ? By whom ? Who was assailed at 
the same time? What was the character of Mr. Lincoln .-' How was his burial 
honored? With whose memory will that of Mr. Lincoln be kept equally sacred ? 
How were Booth and some other conspirators punished ? What of Jefferson 
Davis f How many men during the civil war, on both sides, were either killed or 
wounded ? What of the national debt ? Did the government make foreign 
loans ? Where was a market found for its notes and bonds ? 



319 

North. The war was carried on by means of paper money called 
greenbacks. These were first issued in 1862. At this time all the 
banks of the United States had suspended specie payments. As 
the war went on, gold began to command a premium. It was at its 
highest premium in 1864, when a dollar sold for $2.85 in green- 
backs. The confederates also carried on the war by means of paper 
money. About the middle of the war this money began to depre- 
ciate very much. Before the close of the contest confederate notes 
had become almost worthless. 

The people voluntarily contributed millions of dollars to the sup- 
port of the sick and wounded soldiers. From the humblest country 
towns, as well as from the great cities, money and stores were freely 
tendered. The Sajiitary and Christian Commissions, with their 
supplies and aid, penetrated into every camp and hospital in the 
federal army, while the Union and various Freedmen's Commissions 
were devoted to the special wants of the distressed Unionists and 
destitute freedmen of the South. In this way the enemies of public 
liberty were vanquished ; but the nation must not become careless, 
for other enemies of liberty can and will still arise. She must 
always keep wide-awake in order to preserve that precious gem of 
her country. The starry banner of the Union, planted firmly on 
the ramparts of Liberty, 

" — Long may it wave, 
O'er the land oi\h.t.free 
And the home of the brave." 

By two amendments of the constitution (articles 13 and 15) 
slavery was abolished in the United States and the right of suffrage 
given also to the colored people. — Congress reconstructed the 
Southern States, but the difficulties of this task were much aggra- 
vated by the conflict of opinion between this body and President 
Johnson, Lincoln's successor. In 1867 congress passed the Tenure 
of Office Bill, which said that all those civil "officers whose appoint- 
ment by the president required the consent of the senate, should 
not be removed from office without the senate's permission. After 

By what kind ot money was the war carried on ? What of the banks } How 
much was a dollar of gold worth in greenbacks in 1869? What of the money 
used by the confederates ? What is said of the voluntary contributions of the 
people, and of charitable organizations ? Of what ought the nation to take 
care? In what manner ? What was abolished by amending the constitution, 
and what right given by it to colored people ? Who reconstructed the Southern 
States ? By whom was this task rendered difficult ? What was the meaning of 
the Tenure of Office Bill ? 



320 

the session of congress closed, Johnson suspended Mr. Stanton, the 
secretary of war, from office. When congress met again, they rein- 
stated Secretary Stanton. The president issued an order removing 
him. Congress then impeached him for violating the Tenure of 
Office Bill, and only one vote was lacking to convict him. — The 
United States bought the peninsula Alaska from the Russian gov- 
ernment for $7,200,000 (1867 A. D.) — After Johnson, Gen. Grant 
was twice elected president. The last president, Garfield, was 
assassinated by Guiteau, because the former did not appoint him to 
a consulate (1881 A. D.) The ruffian murderer was executed. 
The vice-president, Arthur, followed Garfield in the office. — By the 
Homestead Bill (passed 1862, and revised 1866) citizens are entitled 
to settle, free from expenses, on unsold government land, to the ex- 
tent of 160 acres. — The United States now comprise thirty-eight 
States and ten territories, with more than fifty-seven million inhab- 
itants, whose number increases annually by one hundred thousand 

immigrants. 

? 131. Japan. 

The ruling dynasty of Japan boasts of an unbroken succession 
during twenty-five centuries. The assumed date of the ascension 
of its founder (660 B. C.) is styled the year i of the Japanese era. 
Its emperors are called Mikados. In the sixth century A. D. Budd- 
hism was introduced from China; with it came the Asiatic civiliza- 
tion. A stream of skilled artisans, scholars, teachers and missiona- 
ries poured into the country, and thenceforth the Japanese charac- 
ter was molded by the same forces that gave to the Chinese its 
peculiar features. 

The Shogun (commander-in-chief of the army) in 1192 A. D. 
acquired the entire control of political affairs, the Mikado retaining 
only the religious supremacy and the symbols of royalty. Under 
this dual form of government, there grew up a feudal system, the 

In what manner did President Johnson act contrary to it ? Who impeached 
him then ? Was he convicted ? What peninsula did the United States buy from 
Russia ? For what sum ? Who was president after Johnson ? How did Presi- 
dent Garfield die ? Who was his successor ? What right does the Homestead 
Bill give to poor settlers ? How many States and Territories do the United 
States now comprise ? How many inhabitants do they contain? ^131. Dur- 
ing how many centuries had the present dynasty of Japan (as it boasts) ruled? 
In what year (B. C.) begins the Japanese era.? What are the Japanese emperors 
called ?. When was Buddhism introduced into Japan ? What civilization came 
with it ? Who acquired the entire control of political affairs in 1192 ? What did 
the Mikado retain? 



321 

military leaders securing land in fief, erecting castles, and support- 
ing a host of retainers. This system lasted until 1868, when a 
revolution restored the Mikado to supreme power, destroyed the 
Shogun's rule, and abolished the feudal titles and tenures. At the 
command of the Mikado, 250 vassal nobles, resigning their princely 
incomes, lands and retinues, retired to private life. 

The Portuguese, during their ascendency in the sixteenth cen- 
tury, came to Japan. The missionary quickly followed the sailor. 
Francis Xavier, the apostle to the Indies, introduced Christianity 
(1549 A. D.), and, in time, 600,000 converts were made. This sec- 
ond influx of foreign civilization was stopped by the expulsion of 
the Portuguese and a violent persecution of the Christian Japanese. 
The Dutch alone were allowed a residence upon an island in the 
harbor of Nagasaki, and to exchange a single ship-load of mer- 
chandise per year. 

Commodore Perry, with a squadron of United States vessels, 
entered the harbor of Yokohama (1854 A. D.) He made a treaty 
with Japan, and secured the opening of certain ports to our trade. 
Since then, the third foreign immigration followed. Successive 
commercial treaties have been made. The former exclusiveness has 
been broken down, old ideas have been uprooted, and the nation 
has been thrust into the path of modern civilization. In 1875 ^^^ 
Mikado established a senate. In 1878 he inaugurated provincial 
and departmental assemblies, and in 188 1 he promised to convoke 
in 1890 a national congress. 



SEOOKD OHAPTEE-HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION DT THE NINTH 
AND TENTH PEKIODS. 



§ 132. Constitutions. Political and Social Tendencies. 

Position of Woman, Military Condition. 

The Church. 

Most of the European princes, in our century, acknowledge the 
principle that the constitutional monarchy which unites the rights 

What system grew up under this dual form of government ? How long did 
it last ? What reforms did the Mikado make ? Which Europeans came to 
Japan in the 1 6th century ? What of Francis Xavier? What adversity befell 
the Portuguese and the Christian Japanese ? Which nation alone was permitted 
to stay in Japan? Where? What of Commodore Perry ? What then followed ? 
What civilization did since spread ? What reforms did the Mikado inaugurate in 
1875? In 1878? What did he promise? ^132. What principle do most of 
the European princes acknowledge ? 

(21) 



322 

of the rulers and of the nations, is the form of government that best 
corresponds to the spirit of the age, and to the desires of the peo- 
ple, therefore the representative system became prevalent. Accord- 
ing to it the people, through their representatives, exert the right to 
levy taxes, to take part in legislation, and to enjoy more liberty of 
the press. Russia and Turkey only did not adopt this new form of 
constitution. The last revolutions endeavored to enlarge the demo- 
cratic foundation of the States, and the principle of the sovereignty 
of the people is more generally acknowledged. Two parties, thus 
far, contended inside of the States, namely, the Liberals (democrats, 
republicans), and the Aristocrats (conservatives). The latter would 
grant the least possible rights to the people. The governments 
sided with them. The former represented the opposition party. 

Other outgrowths in the State organism, are socialism and com- 
munism; they appear especially in France, England and Germany, 
where the number of proletaries, in proportion to the capital- 
ists and landed proprietors, has greatly increased. The socialists 
desire a juster distribution of property, progressive taxes, limitation 
of the heirship, abrogation of monopolies, lease of public land by 
the State, right of woman suffrage, workmen associations, etc. The 
communists, on the contrary, demand complete community of 
property, by abblishing the right of ownership. The late revolu- 
tions in France and Germany were, in part, of the socialistic kind. 
In Russia, the socialists are called Nihilists, because they aim to 
destroy and annihilate all tyrannical institutions of the govern- 
ment. They are organized in secret societies, whose members are 
numbered by thousands; they form the opposition party of the 
despotic government. 

The position of woman is far better now, at least in the United 
States, in England and in France, than it was fifty years ago. The 
property of the wife is withdrawn from the control of the husband 
in England, in France and in most of the United States. Many 
trades and professions are now thrown open to the practice of 

What political system became prevalent ? What rights do the people exert 
through their representatives ? What States did not adopt the new form of con- 
stitution ? What was the aim of the last revolutions ? What two parties are 
contending inside of the States ? What of the conservative party ? In what 
States does socialism especially manifest itself ? What do the socialists desire ? 
What are they called in Russia? Wiat do the communists demand? What is 
the condition of woman now? Give some details of its improvement; of the 
free property of the wife; of the trades and professions practiced by women; of 
their admission to the higher professions; and of their right of suffrage. 



323 

woman. Thousands are school-teachers, governesses and music- 
teachers ; painters, photographers, lithographers, book-keepers, cash- 
iers and attendants in retail stores; compositors, telegraph clerks 
and operators. Many are employed in post-offices and other 
branches, of civil service. At Washington there are at least i,ooo 
women appointed in the different offices of the national govern- 
ment. Some make a good living on the stage, because the preju- 
dice against the reputation of actresses is vanishing. In some 
places women are also admitted to the higher vocations of life ; 
€. g., to the bar and medical practice. There are many female phy- 
sicians in England and America. In several of the larger cities of 
those countries are medical schools for women. Since 1870 twenty- 
three ladies (most of them from Russia, and some from the United 
States of America), were graduated in the medical department of 
the University of Ziirich. In the United States the right of woman 
suffrage is advocated by many, and has been thus far granted by 
the legislature of Minnesota, and in the Territories of Wyoming 
and Washington. 

As most of the great powers of Europe have, in their States, 
copied the miUtary system of Prussia, it will suffice to give the out- 
lines of the latter. All Prussians are trained to military service ; 
every young man enters the army at twenty, and serves for three 
years ; for the next nine years he is in the reserve, liable to serve in 
offensive war; thereafter, for another eighteen years, till he has 
attained the age of fifty, he may be called on to serve at home in 
case of invasion. The standing armies of the European States are 
increasing, devouring their revenues and wealth. 

i New and more hberal views also made their appearance in mat- 
ters relating to the Church. In general, Christians became more 
tolerant of their opponents. Liberty of conscience was granted in 
most countries by the new constitutions. The Lutherans and Re- 
formers in Germany, for the most part, united. A host of ingenious 
writers, like Buckle, Darwin, Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Huxley, 
Lecky, Macaulay, Theo. Parker, Draper, Alex, von Humboldt, 
Feuerbach, Dr. David Strauss, Louis Biichner, Colenzo, Renan, etc., 
and a number of liberal periodicals and orators disseminated more 
rehgious enUghtenment. In the Catholic Church, the German 

Describe the Prussian military system ?, What is the condition of the church ? 
What liberty is granted by the new constitutions ? What of Lutherans and Re- 
formers in Germany .'' What authors did and do disseminate more enlighten- 
ment ? Who separated from the papacy ? 



324 

Catholics, as they are called, separated from the papacy. The 
Protestants in Germany and America established free religious con- 
gregations, and a congress of liberal Americans organized a 
National Liberal League, the object of which is to accomplish the 
total separation of Church and State (1876 A. D.) But the spirit 
of reaction was also at work against the efforts of progress; <?. g.y 
the Order of Jesuits, revived in the last period. Pope Pius VII. 
re-established it (1814 A. D.); it was admitted not only into the 
papal dominions, but into most countries of Europe. True, by the 
last revolutions it was almost everywhere aboHshed again, still it 
returned, together with the old state of reaction. 

^ 133. Arts and Sciences. Public Schools. 

Fratice — Poets : Victor Hugo, Lamartine and Beranger. The 
latter encouraged the people in the time of the restoration by his 
political poems, etc. Historians : Chateaubriand, etc. The first 
French revolution was described by Rabaut, St. Etienne and Thiers ; 
the history of the Consulate and Empire, by Thibaudeau ; the Russian 
campaign, by Segur ; the revolution of July, in 1830, by Salvandy and 
Dupin. Philosophers : August Comte was the greatest philosopher ; 
his work, " Positive Philosophy," is a great achievement. Others : V. 
Cousin and Volney; the latter is known by his work "The Ruins." 
Mathematicians and Astronomers : La Place, La Grange, Lalande, 
Arago and Leverrier, who discovered the planet Neptune. Cuvier 
was the most eminent naturalist. Composers : Auber, etc. Political 
Orators: Mirabeau, Vergniaud, Manuel, Benj. Constant, Gam- 
betta, etc. 

England — AValter Scott and Lord Byron, in the two last periods, 
earned the highest applause of all English poets. The former, 
besides several poems, wrote many novels, which are founded on 
historical subjects. Byron was an epic, narrative and dramatic poet 
("Childe Harold," " Don Juan "). He took part in the contest of 
the delivery of the Greeks, in which he sacrificed a great part of 
his fortune and his life. Other poets: Shelley ("Queen Mab"), 

What congregations did the Protestants establish? What league was organ- 
ized in America ? What is the object of the league? What of reaction ? Give 
an example of its activity. 1 133. France — Poets ? What of Beranger ? His- 
torians ? What of August Comte ? Astronomers ? What planet did Leverrier 
discover ? Orators ? Composers ? England — Poets ? Which were the 
greatest ? What did Walter Scott write ? What of Byron ? In what war did 
he take part? What did he sacrifice? Other poets ? 



325 

Coleridge, Alfred Tennyson ("Queen Mary "), Thomas Moore" 
(" Lalla Rookh," " Irish Melodies "), Bulwer (" Lady of Lyons "), 
Robert Burns, the great national poet of Scotland, Jerrold 
("Mrs. Caudle's Curtain-Lectures," "Black-eyed Susan"), T. 
Hood (" Song of the Shirt "), etc. Historians : Hume (" History 
of England "), Macaulay (" History of England "), Froude (" His- 
tory of England and Ireland"), Buckle (" History of Civilization in 
England "), Lecky, Carlyle, Gibbon (" Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
man Empire"), etc. Philosophers : Herbert Spencer, who imparted 
a systematic knowledge of all branches of philosophy ; Stuart Mill, 
Hume ("Essays"), Lecky, Hamilton, etc. Naiitral Philosophers : 
Tyndall, Faraday, Lyell (" Geology "), Huxley (" Lay Sermons "), 
Wallace, and the most eminent of all, Charles Darwin, author of the 
doctrine of natural descent, propounded in his celebrated work 
" Origin of Species," by which he inaugurated a new era of natural 
science. Mathetnaticiajis : John Hershel (the son of William Her- 
shel). Hind, the discoverer of many planets, etc. Novelists : Charles 
Dickens, Bulwer (Lord Lytton), Thackeray, Mr. and Mrs. Brown- 
ing, M. Ann Evans (under the assumed name of George Eliot), 
Miss Harriet Martineau, etc. Parlianieiitary Orators: George 
Canning; Wilberforce, who, by his speeches, greatly aided in the 
abolishment of the slave trade ; Daniel O'Connell, etc. 

Italy — Poets: Metastasio, Alfieri, Silvio PelHco. The latter was 
arrested because he was a member of the society of the Carbonaris 
(1820 A. D.), and kept in prison for ten years. He represented the 
sufferings he endured beneath the leads of the jail in Venice, in an 
affecting manner. Mathematicians : Galvani, Volta, Piazzi, the dis- 
coverer of the planet Ceres. Composers : Rossini, Verdi, etc. 

Germany — Poetry attained its highest standard with Klopstock, 
Herder, Wieland, and the two most perfect German poets, Schiller 
(t 1805 A. D.), and Goethe (f 1832 A. D.) Wieland's numerous 
writings express a cheerful view of life. In his philosophical 
novels he attacks superstition with dehcate irony. Schiller's 
works breathe love of liberty, fervor of emotions, and a lofty 

Historians ? Philosophers ? About what did Herbert Spencer write ? 
Natural philosophers ? Who was the most eminent ? Why ? Astronomers ? 
What did Hind discover ? Novelists ? What is the assumed name of M. Ann 
Evans ? Orators ? What of Wilberforce ? Italy — Poets ? What did Silvio 
Pellico describe ? Mathematicians ? Composers ? Germany — Poets ? Who 
were the two most accomplished poets ? 



326 

moral earnest. Therefore he became the favorite poet of the Ger- 
man nation. Goethe was great almost in every branch of poesy. 
Only the best known of the many excellent poets can here be 
named. Epic Poets : Wieland (" Oberon"), Goethe (" Herman 
and Dorothea"), Salomon Tobler. Poets of Idyls : Voss ("Luisa"); 
Gessner. Lyric Poets : Klopstock, Mathisson, Biirger (" Elenore "), 
Herder, Salis, Uhland, Heine, Rlickert (harnessed sonnets), the 
most productive among the modern ones ; Holty, Geibel, Gottfried 
Keller, Auersperg (under the assumed name of Anastasius Griin) 
(" Walks of a Poet of Vienna"), Freiligrath, Herwegh (" Poems of 
a Living One" — " Gedichte eines Lebendigen"), Prutz. The four 
last named gained the highest applause by their political songs. 
Auersperg was banished from Vienna, and Freiligrath, of his own 
accord, relinquished a pension granted to him by the king of Prussia. 
Tragic Poets : Frederic Schiller {"■ Don Carlos," " Wallenstein," 
" William Tell"), Goethe (" Egmont," " Faust "), Grillparzer, Rau- 
pach, etc. Writers of Comedies : Henry Kleist (" Kate of Heil- 
bronn" — " Das Kathchen von Heilbronn"), Bauernfeld, and Kotze- 
bue, who wrote more than 200 plays. Fabidists : Pfeffel, Gellert, 
Frohlich. Historians: Rotteck, who was dismissed from his professor- 
ship by reason of his " Universal History," written in a liberal spirit; 
Schlosser, Schiller (" Thirty Years' War"), and John Mueller (" His- 
tory of the Swiss Confederacy"), Heeren, Ge. Kolb (" History of 
Civilization of Mankind" — " Culturgeschichte der Menschheit"), 
G. Weber, etc. Histoj-ians of Literature : Gervinus, L. Ettmiiller, 
Johannes Scherr, etc. Philosophers : Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, L. 
Feuerbach, Schoppenhauer. Natural Philosophers: Alexander 
Humboldt (" Cosmos"), Karl Vogt, Baumgartner, Louis Biichner, 
Moleschott, BerzeUus (chemist), Liebig (chemist), etc., Ritter 
(geographer). Astro?iomers : F. W. Bessel, while living the lead- 
ing astronomer of the world ; Gauss, Bode, Littrow, Struve, etc. 
Theological Writers : Dr. David Strauss (" Life of Jesus," " Old 
and New Faith"), Zschokke, etc. The latter wrote also good 
novels, a history of Switzerland, etc. Philologues : Adelung, Jacob 
Grimm, Becker, C. Orelh (editor of "Cicero"), L. Ettmuller (author 
of an Anglo-Saxon dictionary, etc. Sculptors : Dannecker, Thor- 
waldsen, etc. Painters : Cornelius, Kaulbach, etc. Public Ora- 

Epic poets ? Poets of Idyls ? Lyric poets ? Political poets ? Tragic poets ? 
Writers of comedies? Fabulists? Historians? Wherefore was Rotteck dis- 
missed from the professorship ? Philosophers? Natural philosophers ? Astron- 
omers ? Theological writers ? Philologues ? Sculptors ? Orators ? 



327 

tors : Saalfeld, Rotteck, Welker; and in Switzerland: Dr. Kellei;, 
Dr. Furrer, Caspar Hirzel, etc. Composers : Mozart ("Don Juan," 
" The Enchanted Flute"), Joseph Haydn, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, 
Carl Maria Weber, Schubert, Wagner, etc. 

Russia — Ivan Turgenjew, the ingenious Russian novelist, was 
much admired for the lofty imagination, love of liberty and patriot- 
ism expressed in his works. They were translated from the Rus- 
sian into several modern languages. He died in voluntary exile 
(1883 A. D.) 

United States of America— Poets : Bryant (" Thanatopsis "), 
Longfellow (" Miles Standish," " Golden Legend," " Hiawatha "), 
Whittier, Simms, Mrs. Sigourney, Holmes, Poe, J. G. Saxe, Fitz- 
Green Halleck (" Marco Bozzaris"), Mrs. Maria Brooks (" Maria 
del'Occidente "), Mrs. Frances Osgood, Misses Ahce and Phoebe 
Gary, etc. Historians : Geo. Bancroft (" History of the United 
States of America"), Prescott, Hildreth, Motley, Bryant (" Popular 
History of the United States of America "), etc. Philosophers : J. 
Fiske, Emerson, Draper, etc. In Natural History : Louis Agassiz, 
Asa Gray, etc. In Natural Sciejice : J. D. Dana, J. W. Draper, F. 
Mawry, etc. Mathematicians: Nath. Bowditch, Benj. Peirce, Ch. 
Davies,etc. Philologers : Noah Webster (Dictionary); J. Wor- 
cester (Dictionary). Pedagogical Writers: Horace Mann, Susan 
Wixon, Elmina Slenker, S.. G. Goodrich ("Peter Parley"), Mrs. 
Sigourney, Mrs. Parton (" Fanny Fern "), Mrs. L. M. Child, N. 
Hawthorne, etc. Romance and Miscellaneous Writers: Cooper, 
Wash. Irving, Hawthorne, Channing, Sam Putnam, Frances Osgood, 
Harriet Beecher Stowe (" Uncle Tom's Cabin"), and a hundred 
other good authoresses who cannot be mentioned in a compendmm. 
Orators: Dan. Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Edward Ever- 
ett, Wendell Phillips (t 1884), Seward, Prentice, Chas. Sumner, 
Stephens, Douglas, Choate, Blaine, Robert IngersoU, Henry Ward 
Beecher, etc. In the Fine Arts, also, the American school of 
painters and sculptors stands very high. 

Newspapers— hm'txxc^Vi?, are pre-eminently a newspaper-read- 
ing people. The newspaper is the people's library. It is estimated 
that there are about eight thousand different newspapers and per- 
iodicals published in the United States. 

Composers ? United States— Yo^X.% ? Historians ? Philosophers ? Authors 
in Natural History and Natural Science? Mathematicians? Philologers? 
Pedagogical writers ? Romance writers ? Orators? What of Fine Arts ? Of 
riewspapers ? 



328 

Public Education — The following pedagogues deserved well of 
the public education : Lancaster (i 798 A. D.) and Bell ( 18 12 A. D.) 
in England, by institution of mutual instruction ; in Switzerland, 
H. Pestalozzi, Thomas Scherr; in Germany, Campe ("Robinson 
Crusoe "), Niemeier, Diesterweg, etc. 

In Germany, Switzerland, the United States of America, and other 
countries, Turner Associations are organized in order to develop the 
physical strength and ability of their members and of the youth. 
In the United States the Turners have a membership of 28,000. 

In Prussia, the schools of which are believed to be the best (in 
Germany), education is compulsory, and in practice almost universal. 
Over four million children, or nearly one in every six of the 
population, attend the elementary schools. A small fee is charged ; 
the balance is contributed by a local tax. The Minister of PubHc 
Education is at the head of the educational system. In Switzerland, 
too, the public schools of the Protestant cantons are in an excellent 
condition. It takes six years to pass through the several grades of 
the elementary education. There are, besides, many high schools, 
six universities, poly technical schools, academies, etc. Some cantons 
spend the fourth part of the public revenues for public instruction. — 
In America, Common Schools are established, which are well organ- 
ized, and in which all classes can be educated. These schools pro- 
vide the means of education to all classes, including the children of 
the freedmen. The teachers are prepared in Normal schools for 
their vocations. Most of them are female teachers. Over 400 
colleges and universities supply the wants of higher education. 

'i 134. Inventions. Steamboats. Railroads. Telegraphs. 

Cable. Telephones. Photography. Cotton-gin. 

International Exhibition of Arts 

and Industry. 

During this (the 19th) century there has been an almost complete 
revolution in nearly every branch of industry. The substitution of 

Of public education ? Give the names of some renowned pedagogues in 
England, Switzerland and Germany. Who wrote " Robinson Crusoe " for the 
youth ? Give an outline of the Prussian school system. How many children 
attend the elementary schools ? How are the expenses of the schools pi^ovided 
for ? What of the public schools in the Protestant cantons in Switzerland ? 
What of elementary and higher education ? Explain the system of the common 
schools in America. Where are the teachers prepared for their vocation ? How 
many higher institutes are there ? ^134. What good effects did the introduction 
of machine labor and the application of steam to machinery produce ? 



329 

machine labor for that of human force has added immensely to the 
production of the comforts of life, and the application of steam to 
the machines has made them more rapid in production. The prac- 
tical application of the steam-engine to navigation was made in 
1807, when a steamboat, built by Robert Fulton, was launched 
on the Hudson river, and finally the ocean, as well as rivers and 
lakes, was traversed by steam vessels. The application of steam to 
carriages was the next step in modern invention. This was effected 
in the United States by Oliver Evans, and in England by George 
and Robert Stephenson. 

The first railroad of the United States was operated m Quincy, 
Massachusetts (1827 A. D.) The second, the Baltimore and Ohio 
(1828 A. D.) Another early railroad was the South Carolina (1833 
A. D.), of 135 miles, at that time the longest in the world. There 
are at present about 100,000 miles of railroad in the United States. 
The trans-continental railroad from New York to San Francisco is 
3,600 miles long. It was completed in 1869. — Steam was also 
employed for printing, and thereby the printing of books greatly 
facilitated and their price materially lessened. The Daguerreotype, 
and the photographic art seems to supersede portrait painting. — 
The sewing-machine facilitates the work of the seamstress. 

The electro-magnetic telegraph, and its appliance to submarine 
cables, are also American inventions. Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse in- 
vented the telegraph. The first telegraph Une was stretched be- 
tween Washington and Baltimore (1844 A. D.) There are at 
present over one hundred thousand miles of telegraph wires in 
•operation. The first submarine Atlantic cable was laid between 
Newfoundland and Ireland by the Atlantic Telegraph Company, 
President Field (185 7-1858 A. D.) It was worked for a brief 
period, and then failed. Another cable was laid under the superin- 
tendence of Mr. Field, and proved an entire success (1866 A. D.) 
The first submarine cable was laid in the Straits of Dover, connect- 
ing Dover and Calais (1851 A. D.) 

Who built the first steamboat ? When .-' On what river was the trial trip 
made? Who, in America, first applied steam to railroads? Who in England? 
Where was the first railroad built in America ? Where the second ? Where the 
longest of that time? How many miles of railroad are there in the United 
States ? How long is the central trans-continental railroad ? When was it com- 
pleted ? For what press was steam also employed ? What of Daguerreotype 
and photographic art ? Who invented the electro-magnetic telegraph ? Where 
-was the first telegraph line stretched ? How many miles of telegraph wires are 
in operation in the United States ? Between what islands was the first Atlantic 
cable laid ? 



330 

The telephone was invented by Reis, of Frankfort (1861 A. D.), 
to telegraph musical sounds and the sounds of speech. Bell of 
Boston, and Edison of New Jersey, are also claimants for its inven- 
tion. — The electric light is also used for lighting streets, large halls,, 
hotels, palaces, beacons, etc. 

Another American invention is the cotton-gin. This machine,, 
by which the seeds are separated from cotton, was constructed by 
Eli Whitney while in Savannah (1792 A. D.) It greatly stimulated 
the cultivation of cotton. Gradually cotton became almost the ex- 
clusive staple of the Gulf States. America controls the cotton sup- 
ply of the world. — Immigration from Europe helps to build up the 
power of the United States. They received in ten years (from' 
i860 to 1870) four and a half million emigrants. The amount of 
their surplus products which they can sell to other countries is 
growing with their population. Year by year their imports diminish. 

In London, an international exhibition of the diflferent goods of 
all cultivated countries on earth took place, in order to promote 
industry and commerce (1851 A. D.) It took eight hours in order 
to pass around all the tables in the immense Crystal Palace where the 
goods were exposed. There were, side by side, Swiss and Ameri- 
can manufactures, shawls of Norwich and Cashmere, English,. 
Turkish and Persian carpets, jewels from Paris and Delhi. The 
committee of a jury, at the end of the exhibition, distributed 7,000- 
prizes. Similar presentations were since made in several countries. 
In Philadelphia an exhibition was arranged when the Centennial 
Festival of the Union was celebrated there (1876 A. D.) 

EXERCISES. 

Biographus : i. Lafayette — {a) in the American war, {h) in the French 
revolution, [c) during the days of revolution in Paris in 1830. 2. Bolivar. — 
Describe the following contests for liberty : i. Contest of the Poles in 1830 ; 
[a] causes of the insurrection, {b) its beginning, (c) the arming for contest, 
((/) the warfare, {e) the issue, and the consequences of the contest. 2. Com- 
bat of the Greeks ; («) fight of Ypsilanti, {b) contest in Greece, {c) single 
exploits, {({) downfall of Missolonghi, (er) foreign assistance, (/") termination 
of the combat. 3. War of the Hungarians. — Give an account of the French 

By whom ? When ? When again ? When was the cable between Dover and 
Calais laid ? W^ho invented the cotton-gin ? What success did the machine 
have in America? How many immigrants did the United States receive in ten 
years ? What influence has the increase of population in selling the products of 
the land ? Give an account of the international exhibition in London in 185 1 ? 
Where and when was a similar one arranged in America ? 



331 

revolutions in 1830 and 1848 ; also of the revolutions in Berlin and Vienna. In 
what countries did revolutions break out in the years 1820, 1830 and 1848? In 
what months did the revolutions of 1848 take place? When did the Mexican 
war with the United States begin ? When did the Americans enter the city of 
Mexico? What American generals excelled in the Mexican war? How long 
did the war last ? When were the Catholics emancipated in England ? What 
chieftain of the Caucasians became renowned in their war against Russia? 
Give the names of some eminent public orators of England and the United 
States in the two last periods. What important events happened in the years- 
1348, 1648, 1748 and 1848? Who captured the Forts Henry andDonelson? 
Had the Southern States the right to secede ? When did Fort Sumter surren- 
der ? When Vicksburg ? Which was the greatest battle during the secession 
war? When were the slaves of the Confederate States emancipated? What 
general of the Union gained the victory at Nashville ? Why did General Sher- 
man undertake a campaign through the Confederate States ? When was Rich- 
mond taken ? When did General Lee surrender ? 



ERRATA. 



Page ID, line 7 from above, instead of Athense, read Athene. 

Athena, read Athense. 
Aphis, read Apis. 
Egyptians, read Egyptian, 
maga, read magian. 
their, read the. 
pleague, read plague. 
Conossa, read Canossa. 
Philip IV., read Philip VI. 
Philip I., read Philip II. 
Alexander I., read Alexander II> 
below, " Alexander I., read Alexander II. 



" 14, ' 


' 6 


" 23, ' 


' 4 


" 23, 


' 16 


" 23, 


' 18 


" 68, 


' 8 


" 88, 


' 16 


" 118, 


• IS 


" 149. 


• 3 


" 186, 


' 4 


" 306, ' 


' 25 


" 306, ' 


' 4 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 



I. ANOIEUT WORLD. TO 375 B. 0. 



First Period. To joo B. C. 



About 2000. Ninus in Assyria. 

Menes in Egypt. 

Abraham. 
About 1500. Moses. 

Invention of glass and purple. 
1582. Cecrops. 

About 1 190. Demolition of Troj a. 
1080. Moeris and Cheops. 
1068. Codrus, King of Athens, dies. 
About 933. Homer. 
About 888. Foundation of Carthage. 

Lycurgus. 
753. Foundation of Rome. 



700. Numa Pompilius. 

670. King Psammetichus. 

About 600. Cong-fu-Tse. 

600. Sappho, the poetess, born. 

594. Solon. 

560. Cyrus. 

538. Babylon taken by the Persians. 

520. Pythagoras. 

510. Expulsion of Hippias. Athens 

becomes a republic. 
509. Expulsion of Tarquinius. 
494. Secession to the Sacred Mount. 



Second Period. _^oo-jo B. C. 



490. Battle at Marathon. 

Coriolanus banished. 
480. Leonidas at Thermopylse. 

Battle at Salamis. 
479. Battle at Platsese. 
450. Pericles. Golden era of arts and 
sciences in Athens. 

Phidias. 

Decemvirs appointed. 
435. Herodotus. 
431-404. Peloponnesian war. 

Hippocrates. 
429-348. Plato. 
399. Death of Socrates. 
371. Battle at Leuctra. 
362. Battle at Mantinea. 
358. Philip of Macedonia. 

Demosthenes. 
345. Timoleon. 
338. Battle at Chaeronea. 

Downfall of Greek liberty. 
336-323. Alexander the Great. 
333. Battle at Issus. 
331. Battle at Arbela. 
319. Aristoteles. 
314. Aeshines. 
280. Tarantine war. 



280. Euclid flourished in Alexandria. 
264-242. First Punic war. 
218-202. Second Punic war. 

Hannibal. 
216. Battle at Cannge. 
212. Archimedes. 
202. Battle at Zama. 
150-146. Third Punic war. 
146. Destruction of Carthage. 
133. Tib. Gracchus proposes the re- 
newal of the agi'arian law. 
102-101. The Cimbri and Teutones. 
90. War of the confederates of Italy. 
90-64. War against Mithridates. 
87. First civil war. 

Marius and Sulla. 
62. Catiline's conspiracy. 

Cicero. 
60. First Triumvirate. 
49. Second civil war. 

Ccesar and Pompeius. 
48. Battle at Pharsalus. 
44. Csesar's death. Second Trium- 
virate. 
24. Third civil war. 

Battle at Philippi. 
29. Augustus, Roman emperor. 



333 



Third Period. 30 B. C-j/jr A. D. 



9 (B. C. ) Battle of Arminius, 
14 (A. D.) Tiberius. 
19. Livius, the historian. 
54. Nero. 

69. Vespasian. 

70. Destruction of Jerusalem. 
79. Titus. 



96. 

98. 
117. 
138. 
161. 
285. 
306. 



Nerva. , 
Trojanus. 
Hadriannus. 
Antoninus Pius. 
Marcus Aurelius. 
Diocletian. 
Constantine I. 



II. MIDDLE AGES. 375-1492 A. D. 

Fourth Period. 373-900 A. D. 



375. Migration of nations. 
379. Theodosius the Great. 
395. Partition of the Roman empire. 
410. Rome captured by Alaricus. 
433-454- Attila. 
About 450. Meroveus. 
451. Battle at Chalons. 
476. Downfall of the Occidental empire 
481-51 1. Clovis I. Foundation of the 
Frank empire. 

Fifth Period. 



493-526. Theodoric the Great. 
527-565. Justinian. 
622. Mohammed's flight. 
732. Battle at Tours. 
771-814. Charlemagne. 
786-808. Haroun al Raschid. 
800. Charlemagne, Roman emperor. 
850. The Waragians found the Rus- 
sian empire. 

goo-1300 A. D. 



918-1024. Saxon emperors. 

918-936. Henry I. 

934. Battle at Merseburg. 

936-973. Otto I. 

955. Battle on the Lechlield. 

987. Hugh Capet. 

1 024-1 125. Franconian emperors. 

1053. Separation of the Oriental from 

the Occidental Church. 
1056-I106. Henry IV. 
1073-1085. Pope Gregory VII. 
1096-1291. Crusades. 
1 138-1254. Suabian emperors. 
II38-1190. Frederic Barbarossa. 
1158-1183. Contest of the Lombard 

cities for liberty. 
1 164. Minnesingers. 
1 174-1193. Emir Saladin. 
1 1 76. Battle at Legnano. 

Sixth Period. 1300-1492 A 



1 196-1250. Emperor Frederic II. 

1198-1216. Pope Innocent III. 

1204-1261. Latin empire. 

1207. Crusade against the Albigenses. 

1210. Temudschin (Genghis Khan). 

12 1 5. Magna Charta of England. 

1224. Foundation of the first univer- 
sity. 

1229. Inquisitional Tribunal estab- 
lished by Gregory IX. 

1237-1477. Mongols in Europe. 

1259. The Lombard cities become 
free. 

1273-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg. 

1282. The Sicilian Vespers. 

About 1300. Foundation of the Osman 
empire. 
Invention of gunpow^der. 



D. 



1305-1370. The Popes in Avignon. 
1308. The Sw^iss confederates expel their 

governors and restore their league. 
13 10. Abolishment of the Order of 

Templars. 
1313. First theater (in France). 
1315. Battle at Morgarten. 
132 1. Dante Alighieri dies. 
1328. House ol Valois in France. 
1330-1453. Franco-English succession 

war. 

1347. The great plague in Europe. 

1348. First German university (in 
Prague). 

1369. Timurlank. 



1374. Petrarca dies. 

1385. Wycliffe dies. 

1386. Battle at Sempach. 

14 14-14 1 8. Synod in Constance. 

1415. John Huss burnt. 

1419. War of Hussites. 

1429. Joan of Arc. 

1430-1492. Cosmus and Lorenzo of 

Medicis. 
About 1440. Gutenberg invents the 

printing press. 
1452-1485. War of the Two Roses. 
1453. Capture of Constantinople. 

1476. Battles at Granson and Murten. 

1477. Battle at Nancy. 



334 



m. MODERN TIMES. 1492-1883 A. D. 



Seventh Period, I4g2-ib48 A. D. 



1492. Columbus discovers America. 
1498. Passage by sea lo the East In- 
dies discovered. 
1515. Battle at Marignano. 
15 1 7. Reformation beginning in Ger- 
many. 

Martin Luther. 
1519. Zwingli. 

Magellan. 
1521. Diet at Worms. 
1523. Gustavus Vasa. 

1529. Protestants. 

1530. Confession of Augsburg. 
1532. Nicholas Copernicus. 
1540. Order of Jesuits. 

1555. Peace of religion at Augsburg. 



1564. W. Shakespeare (died 1616). 

Galileo. 
1566. Nicholas Zrini. 
1572. St. Bartholomew of Paris. 
1 5 77-' 80. Drake's voyage around the 

earth. 
1589-1610. Henry IV. of France. 
1598. Edict of Nantes. 
1618-1648. Thirty years' war. 

1629. Restitution edict. 

1630. Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. 

1631. Battle at Leipsic. 

1632. Battle at Liitzen. 
Gustavus Adolphus dies. 

1642. Is. Newton (1725). 
1648. Westphalian peace. 



Eighth Period. ib^.S-i'/Sg A. D. 



1643-1715. Louis XIV. 
1649. Charles I. executed. 
1653. Cromwell protector. 
1682-1725. Peter the Great. 

1683. John Sobieski delivers Vienna. 

1684. Peter Corneille, French poet. 

1 685 . Revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
1688. James II. fled from England. 
16S9. William III., king of England. 
1692. Witches burnt at Salem. 

1694. Lafontaine dies. 

1695. Voltaire (1778). 

1697-17 18. Charles XII. of Sweden. 
1701-1714. Spanish succession war. 
1 70 1. Battle of Narva. 
1702-1714. Anne, queen of England. 

1703. Peter I. founds Petersburg. 

1704. Battle at Hochstedt (Blenheim). 
1709. Charles XII. defeated at Pul- 

towa. 
1714-1727. George I. of England. 
1724-1803. Klopstock, the poet. 
1 724-1804. Kant, the philosopher. 
1729-1781. Lessing flourished. 
1733-1813. Wieland, the poet. 
1 740-1 786. Frederic II. of Prussia. 
1749-1832. Goethe, the poet. 
1755. Braddock's defeat. 

Earthquake in Lisbon. 

The French driven into exile from 
Acadia. 
1 756-1 763. Seven years' war. 
1757. Battle at Rosbach. 
1 759-1805. Frederic Schiller, the poet. 
1759. The Jesuits expelled from Por- 
tugal. 



1759. Battle of Quebec, and death of 
Wolfe. 

1765. Passage of the Stamp act. 

1 768-1 769. Cook's voyages of discov- 
ery. 

1772. First partition of Poland. 

1773. Abolishment of the Order of 
the Jesuits. 

1773. Destruction of tea in' Boston 
harbor. 

1774. The English shut up the harbor 
of Boston. 

A congress of the colonies meets at 
Philadelphia. 

1 775-1 783. Contest of the United 
States for independence. 

March 17, 1776. The British evacuate 
Boston. 

July 4, 1776. Declaration of Independ- 
ence adopted by the American 
Congress. 

Aug. 27, 1776. Battle at Long Island. 

Dec. 25, 1776. Battle at Trenton. 

Sept. II, 1777. Battle at Brandywine. 

Oct. 4, 1777. Battle at Germantown. 

Oct. 15, 1777. Burgoyne capitulates at 
Saratoga. 

Feb. 6, 1778. French alliance with 
America. 

Aug. 16, 1780. Battle at Camden. 

1780-1790. Joseph II. 

Oct. 19, 1782. Cornwallis surrenders. 

Nov. 30, 1782. The independence of 
America acknowledged by Eng- 
land. 



335 

Ninth Period. iy8g-i8 1^ A. D. 



1 789-1 797. George Washington Presi- 
dent of the United States. 

1 789-1 79 1. National Assembly in 
France. 

July 14, 1789. Storming the Bastile. 

Aug. 4, 1789. Abolition of the feudal 
service. 

1 791-1792. Legislative assembly. 

1792. Austro-Prussian war against 
France. 

1 792- 1 795. National convent. 

1 792- 1 804. French republic. 

1792. Cotton-gin invented. 

1793. First coalition war. 
Second partition of Poland. 

1794. Abolition of slavery in the 
French colonies. 

July 27, 1794. Downfall of the reign 

of terror. 
1 795-1 799. Directorial government in 

France. 

1795. Third partition of Poland. 

1796. Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. 
Nov. 15 and 16. Battle at Arcole. 

1796. Invention of lithography. 

1797. Peace of Cam po Formio. 

1798. Second coalition war. 
Expedition to Egypt. 
Battle at the Pyramids. 

Aug. I 1798. Naval battle at Abukir. 
1 799- 1 804. Consular government in 

France. 
June 14, 1800. Battle at Marengo. 
Dec. 4, i8uo. Battle of Hohenlinden. 
1 80 1. Peace of Luneville. 
1804-1815. French empire. 

1805. Third coalition war. 

Oct. 21, 1805. Naval battle at Trafalgar. 
Dec. 2, 1805. Battle of Austerlitz. 
Peace of Presburg. 

1806. Prusso-Russian war against 
France. 



1806. The double battle at Auer- 
stedt and Jena. 

1807. Battle of Friedland. 
Peace of Tilsit. 

The first steamboat built by Fulton. 

1808. Spanish war. 

1809. Austrian war. 

May 21 and 22. Battle at Aspern. 
July 5 and 6. Battle at Wagram. 
Peace of Vienna. 
1810-1825. Contests of the Spanish 
colonies for independence. 

1812. Franco-Russian war. 
Battle at the Moskwa. 

Sept. 15-19, 18 12. Conflagration of 

Moscow. 
18 12- 18 14. English-American war. 

1813. A British squadron captured by 
Commodore Perry. 

Aug. 24, 1 8 14. The capitol in Wash- 
ington burned by the English. 

Sept. II, 1814. Commodore McDon- 
ougli destroyed, in the harbor of 
Plattsburg, a British flotilla. 

Jan. 8, 1815. General Jackson defeated 
the English at New Orleans. 

1813. Last coalition war. 

Oct. 16-19, 1813. Battle at Leipsic. 

1814. Restoration of the Bourbons. 
Napoleon banished to Elba. 

May 30, 1814. First peace of Paris. 

Nov. I, 1814. Congress in Vienna. 

March i, 1815. Napoleon returns to 
France. 

June 18, 1815. Battle at Waterloo. 

Aug. 7, 1815. Napoleon taken pris- 
oner, and carried off to St. Helena 
(1821). 

1815. The Holy Alliance concluded. 
Abolition of the slave trade. 

Nov. 20, 18 1 5. Second peace of Paris. 



Tenth Period. 1815-1883 A. D. 



1820. Insurrections in Naples and 
Piedmont. 

Revolution in Spain. 

1821. Insurrection in Portugal. 
1821-1829. Combat of the Greeks for 

liberty. 

1823. Bozzaris' heroic death. 

1824. Brazil separated from Portugal. 

1826. Capture of Missolonghi. 

1827. Naval battle at Navarino. 
First railroad built in the United 

States. 
1829. Irish Catholics admitted to Par- 
liament. 



1830. Revolution of July in Paris. 
Charles X. dethroned. 

Louis Philippe, king of the French. 
Belgium separates from Holland. 
The cholera in Europe. 

1831. Battle at Ostrolenca. 

Reform of Parliament in England. 

1832. Cuvier and Walter Scott die. 
1835. Slave emancipation bill passed 

in England. 
1842. The English Corn laws relaxed. 

1844. Electric telegraph invented. 

1845. Annexation of Texas to the 
United States. 



336 



April, 1846. War between Mexico and 

the United States. 
May 8, 9, 1846. Gen. Taylor defeats 

the Mexican army at Palo Alto 

and Resaca de la Palma. 
Sept. 21. 23, 1846. Capture of Monte- 
rey and defeat of the Mexicans by 

Gen. Taylor. 
Dec. 25, 1846. Battle of El Paso. 

Mexicans defeated by Col. Doniphan. 
Feb. 23, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 

Santa Anna defeated by Gen. 

Taylor. 
Feb. 28, 1847. Col. Doniphan defeats 

the Mexicans at Sacramento. 
March 29, 1847. Vera Cruz surren- 
ders to Gen. Scott. 
July, 1847. The Swiss Secession 

League dissolved by the Diet. 
Aug. 20, 1847. Mexicans defeated at 

Contreras and Churubusco. 
Sept. 8, 1847. Mexicans defeated at 

Molino del Rey by Gen. Worth. 
Sept. 12-14, i^47' Chapultepec 

stormed, and the City of Mexico 

taken by Gen. Scott. 
1847. Swiss secession war. 
Nov. 4, 1S47. Freiburg and Lucerne 

subdued by a confederate army. 
Jan., 1848. Insurrections in Italy. 
Feb. 23, 1848. Revolution in Paris. 

• French Republic. 
March, 1848. Revolutions in Berlin, 

Baden, Vienna and Hungary. 
German National Assembly in 

Frankfort. 
Austrian war in Italy and Hungary. 
Danish-German war. 
March 17, 1848. The Prussian king 

consents to freedom of the press. 
May 30, 1848. Treaty of Guadaloupe- 

Hidalgo. 
1849. Rome a Republic. 
April 14, 1849. The Diet declares 

Hungary to be independent of 

Austria. 
Aug. II, 1849. Gorgey surrenders to 

the Russians at Villagos. 

185 1. Atlantic cable laid at Dover. 
First international exhibition. 

1852. Napoleon III., emperor of 
France. 

1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol. 
1857. Atlantic cable laid between New 

Foundland and Ireland. 
1859. Austrian war against Sardinia 

and France. 
June 4, 1859. Battle at Magenta. 
June 24, 1859. Battle at Solferino. 
i8bi. Italy a kingdom. 
1861-1865. Secession war in the 

United Slates. 



April 13, 1861. Fort Sumter surren- 
ders. 

July 21, 1 86 1. Battle at Bull Run. 

Feb. 6, 1862. Fort Henry captured. 

Feb. 16, 1862. Fort Donelson cap- 
tured. 

April 6, 7, 1862. Battle of Shiloh. 

Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. i, 1863. Battle 
of Murfreesboro. 

March 7, 8, 1862. Battle at Pea Ridge. 

June 27, 1862. Battle at Gaines's Mill. 

July I, 1862 Battle at Malvern Hill. 

Sept. 17, 1862. Battle of Antietam. 

Dec. 13, 1862. Battle of Fredericks- 
burg. 

April 28, 1862. Capture of New Or- 
leans. 

Jan. I, 1863. Abolition of slavery in 
the United States. 

May 2. 3, 1863. Battle of Chancellors- 
ville. 

July I, 2, 3, 1863. Battle at Gettys- 
burg. 

July 4, 1863. Surrender of Vicksburg. 

July 9, 1863. Surrender of Port Hud- 
son. 

Sept. 19, 20, 1863. Battle at Chicka- 
mauga. 

Nov. 23, 24, 25, 1863. Battle of Mis- 
sionary Ridge. 

May, 1864. Battle of the Wilderness.* 

June 18, 1864. Attack on Petersburg. 

Sept. 19, 1864. Battle of Winchester. 

Oct. 19, 1864. Battle of Cedar Creek. 

Sept. 2, 1864. Gen. Sherman occupies. 
Atlanta. 

Nov., 1864. Gen. Sherman marches to 
the sea. 

Dec. 15, 1864. Battle at Nashville. 

Dec. 21, 1864. Capture of Savannah. 

Feb. 17, 1865. Charleston falls. 

April I, 1865. Battle of Five Forks. 

April 3, 1865. Capture of Petersburg 
and Richmond. 

April 14, 1865. President Lincoln as- 
sassinated. 

1866. Prusso-Austrian war. 

July 3, 1866. Battle at Sadowa. 

1870. Franco Prussian war. 
Sept. I, 1870. Battle at Sedan. 

1 87 1. Restoration of the French re- 
public. 

Germany an empire. 

1877, 1878. Turko-Russian war. 

Jan., 1878. The Turkish army sur- 
renders. 

1881. Alexander II. assassinated. 

1883. The northern transcontinental 
railroad finished. 
Woman suffrage granted by the 
Legislature of Washington Terri- 
tory. 



